iANTHROPOLOGY  LIBRARY 


29 


aNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

PSiPAnTMSMT    or  j'.»ITIinaPOLO»Y 


sr 


iPEAL  RESTORATION  OF  THE  NEANDERTHAL  MAN. 


A  MANUAL 


ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN. 


By  J.P.MACLEAN. 


la  order  to  know  nhat  Man  is,  we  oaglit  to  know  what  Man  has  been." 

—Prof.  Max  Mullkb. 


NINTH  EDITION. 


CINCINNATI: 
ROBERT   OLARKK   &    CO, 

1880. 


1   c  ,      . 


N137, 


i?go 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  ihe  year  1S75,  \)f 
J.  P.  MACLEAN, 

in  the  Office  of  tlie  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Wasliington. 


B96  0S6 


PREFACE. 


In  lecturing  upon  the  Antiquity  of  Man  I  have  found 
the  minds  of  tlie  people  prepared  to  receive  the  evidences, 
and  ready  to  believe  the  conclusions  of  tlie  geologists.  I 
have  felt  the  need  of  a  popular  work  to  place  in  the  hands  of 
the  public,  that  would  be  botli  instructive  and  welcome. 
The  works  of  Lyell  and  Lubbock  are  too  elaborate  and  too 

expensive  to  meet  the  popular  need.     My  object  has  been  to 

*    ^ 

give  an  outline  of  the  subject  sufficient  to  afford  a  reasonable 

acquaintance  with  the  facts  connected  with  the  new  science, 
to  such  as  desire  the  information  but  cannot  pursue  it 
further,  and  to  serve  as  a  manual  for  those  who  intend  to 
become  more  pi'oticient. 

As  the  Unity  of  Language  and  the  Unity  of  the  Eace  are 
so  closely  connected  witn  the  subject,  I  have  added  the  two 
chapters  on  these  quesiions,  hoping  they  will  bo  acceptable 
to  the  reader.  It  was  my  intention  to  have  written  a  more 
extended  chapter  on  the  relation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  to 
this  subject,  but  was  forced  to  condense,  as  I  had  done  in 
other  chapters,  in  order  not  to  transcend  the  proposed  limits 
of  the  book. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  work  I  have  freely  used  Lyell's 
A.utiquity  of  Man"  and   ''Principles   of  Geology,"  Lub- 

^^  96  0  S3 


4  rUEFACE. 

bock's  "  Prc-Historic  Times,"  Bucliner's  **  Man  in  the  Past, 
Present,  and  Future,"  Figuier's  "Primitive  Man,"  "Wilson's 
**  Pre-IIistoric  Man,"  Keller's  "Lake-Dwellings,"  the  works 
of  Charles  Darwin.  Dana's  "  Manual  of  Geology,"  Huxley's 
"Man's  Place  in  Nature,"  Prichard's  "  Natural  Ilistorv  of 
Man,"  Pouchet's  "  Plurality  of  the  Human  Piacc,"  and 
others,  referred  to  in  the  margins. 

I  am  indebted  to  my  friend,  Mr.  Frank  Gushing,  for  the 
ideal  restoration  of  the  Xeandertiial  Man.     The  engraving 
was  made  especially  for  this  work.     The  references  to  Buch- 
ner  are  from  his  work  entitled,    "Man  in  the  Past,  Present 
and  Future." 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTKODUCTION. 

piaa 

Interest  in  the  subject— Influence  of  Lyell — Uslier's  Chrono.cgy 
— Aima  Boue  tirst  to  proclaim  the  high  antiquity  of  man — Dr. 
Schmerling  the  founder — Boucher  de  Perthes  tlie  apostle — 
Classifications  by  Lubbock,  Lartet,  Renevier,  and  Westropp — 
Plan  of  the  work — No  Universal  Age  of  Stone,  Bronze,  or  Iron 
— Epochs  not  sharply  defined — Outlines  of  History — Supersti- 
tious Notions — Skull  from  Constatt — Stone  hatchet  from  Lon- 
don— Cavern  of  Gailenreuth — Axes  from  Hoxue — Human  jaw 
from  Maestricht — Skeleton  from  Lahr — "  Reliquife  Diluvianae" 
— Discoveries  by  Tournal  and  Christol — Engis  and  Enghihoul 
Caverns — Schmerling's  labors — Lyell's  opinions — Arrow  mark 
on  skull  of  Cave-Bear — Boucher  de  Perthes  and  the  Valley  of 
the  Somme — Jaw  of  Moulin-Quignon — Kent's  Hole — Fossil 
Man  of  Denise — Remains  from  the  Manzanares — Cave  of  Aurig- 
nac — Lyell  declares  his  belief — Lake-Dwellings  of  Switzerland 
Neanderthal  Skull — Caverns  near  Torquay — Cave  of  Massat 
—Cave  of  Lourdes — Caverns  of  Ariege — Tertiary  at  St.  Prest — 
Implements  near  Gosport — Bones  from  Colniar — Implements 
near  Bournemouth — Trou  de  la  Naulette — Bones  near  Savonia 
— Reindeer  Station — Foreland  Cliff — Fossil  Man  of  Mentone — 
Other  Discoveries  near  Mentone 11 

CHAPTER  n. 

GLACIAL    EPOCE. 
Starting  point  for  the  investigation — Advan(»e  of  the  ice — Fauna 
of  Europe — Geological  Period — Probable  Date — Probable  Du- 
ration— Evidences    of    the    Existsnce    of    Man — Implements 


6  CONTENTS. 

rXGE 

from  Hampshire — Flint  tools  at  Bournemouth — Oval  flint  from 
Foreland  Cliff — Implements  from  the  Valley  of  the  Somme 
— Jaw  of  Moulin-Quignon — Implements  from  the  Seine — Axes 
near  Madrid — Kent's  Hole — Brixham  Cave — Human  jaw  from 
Maestricht — Skeleton  from  Lahr — Cave  of  La  Naulette — Im- 
plements from  Hosue— Bones  from  Colmar 25 

CHAPTER   III. 

GLACIAL — CONTINUED. 

Belgian  Caverns — Caverns  of  Lit-ge—  Eugis  Skull — Remarks  of 
Prof.  Huxley — Views  of  Busk,  Schmerling,  Buchner,  and  Vogt 
— Neanderthal  Skull — Prof.  Huxley,  Dr.  Buchner,  and  Dr. 
Fuhlrott  on  Geological  time  of  Neanderthal  Skull — Opinions 
of  Huxley,  Buchner,  Schaaffhausen,  and  Busk — Sknll  from  the 
Loess  of  the  Rhine,  Constatt,  Cochrane's  Cave,  Island  of  Moen, 
Minsk,  and  Plau— Borreby  Skulls — Human  skulls  of  Arno. ...     44 

CHAPTER   IV. 
PRE-GLACIAL  EPOCHS. 

North  America  during  the  Tertiary — Europe — Climate — Fauna  of 
Eocene — Of  Miocene — Of  Pliocene — Traces  of  Man — Opinions 
of  Lyell,  Lubbock,  and  A.  R.  Wallace — Man  in  the  Pliocene — 
Hearth  under  Osars — Human  bones  from  Savonia — Discoveries 
at  St.  Prest — Skull  from  Altaville — Prof.  Denton's  Statement — 
Man  in  the  Miocene — Flints  from  Pontlevoy — Flint-flake  from 
Aurillac — Marks  on  bones  near  Pouauce — Implements  from 
Colorado  and  Wyoming — Eocene — Glacial  Periods  during  the 
Miocene 58 

CHAPTER   V. 

CONDITION  OP  MAN   IN   THE   EARLIEST  TIMES. 

No  knowledge  of  the  first  appearance  of  Man — Fauna  of  India 
during  the  Miocene — Intellect  of  Man — Contests  with  the 
Beasts — A  weapon  invented — Earliest  type — Advancement 
Blow — Climate  changes — Sufferings  of  Man — Known  by  the 
Remains — Structure  of  the  Neanderthal  Man — Engis  Man — 
Men  both  large  and  small — Animal  structure  of  jaws  from 
La  Naulette  and  Moulin-Quignon 63 


CONTEXTS.  7 

CHAPTER  VI. 

INTER-GLACIAL    EPOCH. 

FAGS 

Condition  of  the  earth — Numerous  traces  of  Man — Cave  of  Aurig- 
nac — Conclusions  of  Lartet  and  Cartailhac — Caverns  of  Mac- 
cagnone — Wokey  Hole — Fossil  Man  of  Deuise — Reindeer  Sta- 
tion on  the  Schusse — Dr.  Buchner's  Conclusions 68 

CHAPTER  VII. 

CONDITION   OP   JIAN   IN   THE   INTER- GLACIAL. 

Length  of  the  Inter-Glacial — Man  an  improvable  being — Imple- 
ments improved — Art  of  engraving  begun — Religious  nature — 
Denton's  description  of  primeval  man — Language  improved. .     76 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

REINDEER  EPOCH. 

Advanice  of  the  Glaciers — Fauna — Reindeer  epoch  a  distinct  one — 
Evidences  of  the  existence  of  Man — Caves  of  Central  and 
Southern  France — ^_Implements  from  Les  Eyzies — Relics  from 
La  Madeleine — Workshops  of  Laugerie-Haute  and  Laugerie- 
Basse — Cave  and  rock  shelters  of  Bruniquel — Cave  of  Gour- 
dan — Fossil  Man  of  Mentone — Other  remains  near  Mentone — 
Other  bone  caves  of  France — Belgian  Caverns — Trou  de  Frontal 
— Trou  Rosette — Trou  des  Nutons — Cave  of  Chaleux — Cave  at 
Furfooz — Cave  of  Thavnc-cn — Cave  near  Cracow 79 

CHAPTER   IX.      . 
MAN  OF  THE  REINDEER    EPOCH. 

Man  under  a  more  favorable  aspect — Type  of — Dwellings — Cloth- 
ing —  Food  —  Cannibalism  —  The  Arts — Traffic — Burial — Du- 
pout's  Report 89 

CHAPTER  X. 

NEOLITHIC    EPOCH. 

How  characterized — Caves  of  this  period — Contents  of — Cave  of 
Saint  Jean  d'Alcas — Danish  Shell-Mounds — Danish  Peat  Boga 
— Lake-Dwellings  of  Switzerland — Enumeration  of — Roben- 
hausen — Fauna  and  Flora  of — Troyon  and  Keller  on^Other 
Lake-Dwellrngs — Chronology 94 


8  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   XI. 

MAN   OF   THE  NEOLITHIC. 

FAOB 

Type  of — Advancement — Habitations — Clothing — Food — Arts  and 
Manufactures — Vast  number  of  implements  discovered — War 
—  Agriculture  —  Burial  —  Dolmens,  Tumuli,  Cromleclia,  and 
Menhirs — Victims,  or  Cannibalism 103 

CHAPTER  XII. 
BEONZE  EPOCH. 

No  direct  relation  to  Antiquity  of  Man — How  characterized — Type 
— Habitation  and  Food — Clothing — Implements — Arts — Agri- 
culture— Fishing  and  Navigation — Burial — Religious  Belief — 
Stone  crescents 108 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

IRON    EPOCH. 

Civilization  established — Swiss  Lake-Dwellings — Dr.  Keller's  Ob- 
servations  112 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

TRACES  OF  MAN   IN  AMERICA. 

Great  opportunities  for  the  Archaeologist — Aim  of  the  chapter — 
Skull  from  Osage  Mission — Comstock  lode — (Charcoal  at  To- 
ronto— Knife  from  Kansas — Pelvic  bone  from  Natchez — Skele- 
ton from  New  Orleans — Remains  from  the  reefs  of  Florida — 
Caverns  of  Brazil — Shell  Heaps — Mound-Builders — Extent  of 
Mounds — Implements  of — Sacrificial — Sephulchral — Temple — 
Symbolical — Antiquity  of — Fort  Shelby — How  long  the  Mound- 
Builders  remained 114 

CHAPTER  XV. 

WRITTEN  HISTORY. 

Mystery  of  Ancient  Empires — Rollin's  difficulties — Egypt — Mane- 
tho's  list — Statement  of  Herodotus — Mariette's  explorations — 
Borings  in  the  mud  deposits  of  the  Nile — Dr.  Schliemann's  dis- 
coveries at  Troy — History  of  Chaldea  by  Berosus — Astronomi- 
cal calculations — Chinese  history — Mexican  History 123 


CONTEXTS.  V 

CHAPTER   XVI. 

LANGUAGE. 

FAQS 

A.  field  for  study — Three  divisions  of  language — Rliematic  period 
— Origin  of — Various  theories — Change  of — Views  of  Ancients 
— Number  of — Coniparative  permancy  of  written  language. . .  132 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

tTNITT  OF  THE  HUMAN  RACK. 

Objections  to  the  Unity  of  the  Race — Anatomical — Geographical 
— Disparity  of — Non-existence  of  medium  types — Phenomena 
caused  by  two  united  types — Objections  answered — Both  man 
and  animals  affected  by  climate,  food,  and  condition — Examples 
— Argument  from  language — Ocean  navigated  by  frail  crafts 
— Examples — Captain  Tyson  and  party — The  two  extremes 
exist  in  all  nations,  and  even  in  families — People  who  have 
retrograded — Races  will  amalgamate  and  perpetuate  their 
kind — Griquas — Papuas — Pitcairn  Islanders — Law  of  hybridity 
-Close  affinity  of  the  races — Slow  change  of 186 

CHAPTER  XVIIT. 
THE    BIBLE. 

Cootroversy — Perversion  of  meaning — Men  of  science  branded — 
Design  of  the  chapter — Creation — "  Bara  " — Day — Man's  ap- 
pearance— Two  accounts — Case  of  Cain — Sons  of  God — Re- 
marks of  Dr.  Livingstone — Doctrine  of  unity  of  the  race — ■ 
Chronology — The  Deluge — Septuagint — Monarchies — The  Dis- 
persion— Opinion  of  Dr.  Hedge — No  supernatural  aid  in  the 
formation  of  Language — What  God  may  do  does  not  imply 
what  he  has  done — Dean  Stanley  on  the  Biblical  account  of 

Creation 143 

1* 


A    MANUAL 


OF    THE 


ANTIQUITY    OE.'.MAN. 


CIIAPTETv    I. 

IXTRODUCTIOX. 

No  subject,  of  late  years,  has  so  much  engrossed  the  atten- 
tion of  geologists  as  the  antiquity  of  the  human  race.  The 
interest  was  greatly  increased  by  the  publication  of  Sir  Charles 
Lyell's  "  Antiquity  of  Man."  This  work  called  the  attention 
of  the  public  to  the  subject,  and  so  great  became  the  interest 
that  many  volumes  and  memoirs  have  been  added  to  the  list, 
discussing  the  question  in  various  ways,  and,  for  the  most 
part,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  add  fresh  interest  and  throw 
more  light  on  the  subject.  The  scientific  men  were  slow  to 
take  advantage  of  the  discoveries  continually  being  made  of 
the  bones  and  works  of  man  found  in  caves  and  associated 
with  the  remains  of  extinct  animals.  It  is  ju'obable,  even  at 
this  late  day,  there  would  not  have  been  so  much  discussion 
of  this  subject  had  not  Sir  Charles  Lyell  lent  the  weight  of 
his  great  name  to  it.  Educated  men,  everywhere,  began  to 
doubt  the  correctness  of  Archbishop  Usher's  chronology,  and 
so  complete  has  been  the  revolution  of  opinion  that  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  find  an  intelligent  man  who  would  limit 
the  period  of  man's  existence  to  6,000  years. 

To  Aime  Bone,  a  French  geologist,  must  be  attributed  the 
honor  of  having  been  the  first  to  proclaim  tlie  high  antiquity 
of  the  human  race  ;  to  Pr.  Schmerling,  the  learned  Belgian 

2^6  0  ^^'3. 


12  ANTIQiriV    OF    MAN. 

osteologist,  on  uccoimt  of  liis  luboiious  investigations,  untir- 
ing zeal,  and  great  work  on  the  subject,  the  merited  title 
of  being  the  founder  of  the  new  scienee  ;  to  M.  Boucher  de 
Perthes,  its  great  apostle  ;  while  to  Sir  Charles  Lyell  and  Sir 
John  Lubbock  must  be  ascribed  the  honor  of  having  made 
the  new  theory  popular. 

The  new  science  soon  became  permanently  established, 
and  the  geoIogisT:s  at  once  set  about  classifying  the  facts  be- 
fore them,  in  order  to  assign  to  them  their  respective  places 
in  tlie  geological  epochs.  All  are  agreed  in  respect  to  the 
clironological  orders,  but  all  have  not  used  the  same  nomen- 
clature, in  consequence  of  which  more  or  less  confusion  has 
been  the  result.  Sir  J.  Lubbock  has  divided  pre-liistoric 
archaeology  into  four  great  epochs,  as  follows  : 

''L  That  of  the  Drift;  when  man  shared  the  possession 
of  Europe  with  the  mammoth,  the  cave-bear,  the  woolly- 
haired  rhinoceros,  and  other  extinct  animals.  This  we  may 
call  the  '  Palaeolithic '  period. 

"IL  The  later  or  polished  Stone  Age  ;  a  period  charac- 
terized by  beautiful  stone  weapons  and  instruments  made  of 
flint  and  other  kinds  of  stone  ;  in  which,  however,  we  find  no 
trace  of  the  knowledge  of  any  metal,  excepting  gold,  which 
seems  to  have  been  sometimes  used  for  ornaments.  This  we 
may  call  the  '  Neolithic '  period. 

"III.  The  Bronze  Age,  in  which  bronze  was  used  for 
arms  and  cutting  instruments  of  all  kinds. 

"  IV.  The  Iron  Age,  in  which  that  metal  had  superseded 
bronze  for  arms,  axes,  knives,  etc."  * 

These  divisions  are  recognized  by  Lyell  and  Tylor. 

Edward  Lartet  has  proposed  the  following  classification  : 

I.   THE   STONE   AGE. 
1st.  Epoch  of  extinct  animals  (or  of  the  great  Dear  and 
mammoth). 

2d.  Epoch  of  migrated  existing  animals  (or  the  reindeer 
epoch). 

*  "  Pre-IIistoric  Times,"  p.  2. 


INTRODUCTION. 


13 


3(1.  Epoch  of  domesticated  existing  animals  (or  the  pol- 
ished stone  epoch). 

II.    THE   METAL   AGE. 

1st.  The  Bronze  Epoch. 
2d.    The  Iron  Epocli. 

This  mode  of  division  is  adopted  by  M.  Figiiier,  in  liia 
**  Primitive  Man,"  by  the  Museum  of  Saint-Germain  in  that 
portion  devoted  to  pre-historic  antiquities,  and  adhered  to  in 
essential  points  by  Troyon  and  d'Archiac. 

Professor  Eenevier,  of  Lausanne,  has  proposed  a  some- 
what different  scheme,  founded  upon  the  epochs  of  Swiss 
glaciation.     It  is  as  follows  : 

"I.  Pre-glacial  Epoch,  in  which  man  lived  cotempo- 
raneously  with  the  elephant  {Eleplias  antiquus),  rhinoceros 
{R.  hemitcechus),  and  the  cave-bear  {Ursus  spdmis). 

"II.  Glacial  Epoch,  in  which  man  lived  cotemporaneously 
with  the  mammoth  {Elephas  ptrimigcnins),  rhinoceros  {R. 
tichorrhinus),  cave-bear,  etc. 

"  III.  Post-glacial  Epoch,  in  which  man  lived  cotempo- 
raneously with  the  mammoth  and  reindeer  {Cervus  taranclus). 

*'IV.  Last  Epoch,   or  epoch  of  tlie   Pile-hiildings,  in 
which  man  lived  cotemporaneously  with  the  Irish  elk  {Mega- ^ 
ceros  hihcrnicns),  aurochs  {Bison  Euroj)(eus),"  etc.* 

Westropp  divides  the  periods  of  man,  in  respect  to  his 
Btages  of  civilization,  as  follows  :  Savagery,  Muiiers,  herds- 
.171671,  and  agriculturists. 

In  the  following  pages  a  somewhat  different  classification 
has  been  adopted,  and  may  be  thus  explained  : 

I.  Pre-glacial  Epoch  ;  that  period  antedating  the  glaciers 
of  the  post-tertiary,  in  which  man  lived  cotemporaneously 
with  the  animals  of  the  tertiary,  southern  elephant  {E. 
meridionalis),  etc. 

II.  Glacial  Epoch  ;  that  period  of  the  post-tertiary  when 

*  Bucliner,  p.  269. 


14  ANTIQUITY   OF   MAN. 

man  was  forced  to  contend  with  the  great  ice-fields  and  the 
floods  immediately  succeeding  them,  when  the  mammoth 
{E. 2)rimi genius),  rhinoceros  {R.  iicUorrhimis),  cave-bear,  etc., 
becjan  to  flourish. 

III.  Interglaciul  Epoch  ;  that  period  between  the  glacial 
and  the  second  advance  of  the  ice,  in  which  man  lived  co- 
temporanoously  with  the  animals  of  the  preceding  epoch, 
and  the  cave  bear  became  extinct. 

IV.  Reindeer  Epocli  ;  that  period  when  the  glaciers  again 
advanced  ;  in  which  man's  chief  food  consisted  of  the  flesh  of 
the  reindeer  ((7.  tarandus),  that  animal  having  made  its  way 
in  numerous  herds  as  far  south  as  the  Pyrenees. 

Y.  Xcolitliic  Epocli ;  that  period  in  v.'hich  man  polish**-^ 
his  weapons  of  stone,  and  sought  to  domesticate  certain  an 
mals,  the  dog,  etc. 

VI.  Bronze  Epoch  ;  that  period  characterized  by  weapons> 
and  implements  being  made  chiefly  of  bronze. 

VII.  Iron  Epoch;  that  period  in  which  bronze  was  gen- 
erally superseded  by  iron. 

This  classification,  on  the  whole,  seems  to  be  the  best  that 
could  be  devised,  for  the  reason  it  attempts  to  place  the  evi- 
dences of  the  existence  of  man  in  their  relative  geological 
positions. 

Other  methods  have  misled  the  student.  There  was  no 
universal  Stone,  Bronze,  or  Iron  Age.  The  classification 
given  by  Lubbock  applies  to  Europe,  but  is  too  general.  I 
have  adopted  the  word  "Neolithic"  for  want  of  a  better 
term,  although  the  signification  of  the  word  is  ajipropriate  to 
the  period  it  is  intended  to  represent. 

These  various  epochs  are  not  sharply  defined,  the  one 
from  the  other  ;  but  one  merges  into  the  other  by  gradual  pro- 
gression covering  a  period  of  thousands  of  years.  The  growth 
of  the  various  phmts  and  animals,  and  their  retreat  or  final 
extinction,  have  also  been  very  slow. 

An  outline  of  the  history  of  the  discoveries  which  led  to  a 
careful  investigation  of  the  question,  and  which  resolved  tho 


INTIlODUCTIOlSr.  15 

question  into  a  science,  is  not  only  one  of  interest  but  also  of 
importance  to  tlie  careful  thinker  seeking  information  on 
the  subject. 

Prior  to  the  study  of  the  ancient  implements  the  "people 
had  so  little  notion  of  the  nature  and  signification  of  the 
stone  axes  and  weapons  of  earlier  and  later  times  that  they 
were  regarded  with  superstitious  fear  and  hope,  and  as  produc- 
tions of  lightning  and  thunder.  Hence  for  a  long  time  they 
were  called  thunderbolts  even  by  the  learned.  .  .  As 
late  as  the  year  1734  when  Mahndel  explained  in  the  Academy 
of  Paris  that  these  stones  were  human  implements,  he  was 
laughed  at,  because  he  had  not  proved  that  they  could  not 
have  been  formed  in  the  clouds."  * 

As  early  as  the  year  1700,  a  human  skull  was  dug  out  of 
the  calcareous  tufE  of  Constatt,  in  company  with  the  bones 
of  the  mammoth.  It  is  preserved  in  the  Natural  History 
Museum  at  Stuttgart. 

In  the  year  1715,  an  Englishman  named  Kemp  found  in 
London,  by  the  side  of  elephants'  teeth,  a  stone  hatchet,  sim- 
ilar to  those  which  have  been  subsequently  found  in  great 
numbers  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  This  hatchet  is  still 
jDreserved  in  the  British  Museum. 

In  1774,  in  the  cavern  of  Gailenreuth,  Bavaria,  J.  F.  Es- 
per  discovered  some  human  bones  mingled  with  the  remains 
of  extinct  animals. 

In  1797,  unpolished  flint  axes  were  dug  out  in  great  num- 
bers from  a  brick-field  near  Hoxne,  county  of  Suffolk,  where 
they  occurred  at  a  depth  of  twelve  feet,  mingled  with  the 
bones  of  extinct  species  of  animals.  They  were  gathered  up 
and  thrown  by  basketsful  upon  the  neighboring  road.  In 
the  year  1801,  before  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  John  Frere 
read  a  paper  upon  tliem,  in  which  he  stated  that  they 
pointed  to  a  very  remote  period.  This  communication,  short 
as  it  was,  contained  the  essence  of  all  subsequent  discoveries 

*  "  Man  in  the  Past.  Present,  and  Future,"  p,  233. 


IC  ANTIQUITY    OF    MAN. 

and  speculations  as  to  the  antiquity  of  man.  But  the  societj 
regarded  the  subject  as  of  no  importance. 

During  the  construction  of  a  canal  (1815-1823)  in  Hol- 
lerd,  there  was  found,  near  Maestricht,  in  the  loess,  a  human 
jaw  in  company  with  the  bones  of  extinct  animals.  This 
bone  is  preserved  in  the  miiseum  at  Leyden. 

In  1823,  Aime  Boue  disinterred  portions  of  a  human  skel- 
eton fi'om  ancient  undisturbed  loess  near  Lahr,  a  small  vil- 
lage nearly  opposite  Strasbourg.  These  bones  were  jjlaced  in 
the  care  of  Cuvier,  but,  having  been  neglected,  are  now  lost. 

In  the  same  year,  Dr.  Buckland,  an  English  geologist,  pub- 
lished his  "Eeliquire  Diluviana?,"  a  work  jirincipally  devoted 
to  a  description  of  the  Kirkdale  Cave.  The  author  com- 
bined all  the  known  facts  which  favored  the  coexistence  of 
man,  with  the  extinct  animals. 

In  1828,  M.  Tournal  and  M.  Christol  explored  numerous 
caverns  in  the  south  of  France.  In  the  cavern  of  Bizc, 
Tournal  found  human  bones  and  teeth,  and  fragments  of  rude 
pottery,  together  with  the  bones  of  both  living  and  extinct 
species  of  animals,  imbedded  in  the  same  mud  and  breccia, 
cemented  by  stalagmite.  The  human  bones  were  in  the  same 
chemical  condition  as  those  of  the  extinct  species. 

M.  Christol  found  in  the  cavern  of  Pondres,  near  Nimes, 
some  Imman  bones  in  the  same  mud  with  the  bones  of  an 
extinct  hyena  and  rhinoceros. 

In  1833,  Dr.  Schmerling  explored  the  two  bone-caverns 
of  Engis  and  Enghihoul  (Belgium).  In  the  former  he  found 
the  Engis  skull  (now  in  the  museum  of  the  University  of 
Liege),  at  a  depth  of  nearly  five  feet,  under  an  osseous  breccia. 
The  earth  also  contained  the  teeth  of  rhinoceros,  horse,  hyena, 
and  bear,  and  exhibited  no  marks  of  disturbance.  lie  also 
found  the  skull  of  a  young  person  injbedded  by  the  side  of  a 
mammoth's  tooth.  It  was  entire,  but  so  fragile,  that  it  fell 
to  pieces  before  it  Avas  extracted.  In  the  cave  of  Enghihoul 
he  found  numerous  bones  belonging  to  three  human  individ- 
uals, mingled  with  the  bones  of  extinct  animals.     In  these 


INTKODUCTION.  17 

caves  he  noted  rude  flint  instruments,  but  did  not  collect 
many  of  them.  In  the  cave  of  Chokier,  he  discovered  a  pol- 
ished and  jointed  needle-shaped  bone,  Avith  a  hole  pierced 
through  it,  at  its  base.  The  caves  of  Engis  and  Chokier  have 
been  annihilated,  while  only  a  part  of  Enghihoul  remains. 

Soon  after  these  discoveries  Dr.  Schmerling  published  a 
work  which  described  and  represented  a  vast  quantity  of 
objects  which  had  been  discovered  in  the  Belgian  caverns. 
The  scientific  men  were  not  yet  prepared  to  receive  the  new 
discoveries,  and  it  attracted  but  little  attention  at  that  time. 

Too  much  praise  cannot  be  bestowed  upon  Dr.  Schmerling 
for  his  unremitting  labors.  Of  these  labors  Sir  Charles  Lyell 
has  said  :  "  To  have  undertaken,  in  1832,  with  a  view  of 
testing  its  truth  (antiquity  of  fossil  human  bones)  to  follow 
the  Belgian  philosopher  through  every  stage  of  his  observations 
and  proofs,  would  have  been  no  easy  task  even  for  one  well- 
skilled  in  geology  and  osteology.  To  be  let  down,  as  Schmer- 
ling was,  day  after  day,  by  a  rope  tied  to  a  tree,  so  as  to  slide  to 
the  foot  of  the  first  opening  of  the  Engis  cave,  where  the  best- 
preserved  human  skulls  were  found  ;  and,  after  thus  gaining 
access  to  the  first  subterranean  gallery,  to  creep  on  all  fours 
through  a  contracted  passage  leading  to  larger  chambers,  there 
to  superintend  by  torchlight,  week  after  week  and  year  after 
year,  the  Avorkmen  who  were  breaking  through  the  stalag- 
mitic  crust  as  hard  as  marble,  in  order  to  remove  piece  by 
piece  the  underlying  bone-breccia  nearly  as  hard  ;  to  stand 
for  hours  with  one's  feet  in  the  mud,  and  with  water  dripping 
from  the  roof  on  one's  head,  in  order  to  mark  the  position 
and  guard  against  the  loss  of  each  single  bone  of  a  skeleton  ; 
and  at  lengtb,  after  finding  leisure,  strength,  and  courage  for 
all  these  operations,  to  look  forward,  as  the  fruits  of  one's 
labor,  to  the  publication  of  unwelcome  intelligence,  opposed 
to  the  prepossessions  of  the  scientific  as  well  as  the  unscientific 
public  ; — when  these  circumstances  are  taken  into  account, 

we  need   scarcely  wonder that  a  quarter  of   a 

century  should  have  elapsed  before  even  the  neighboring  pro- 


18  ANTIQUITY   OF   MAN. 

fcssors  of  the  University  of  Liege  came  forth  to  vindicate 
the  trutlifuhiess  of  their  indefatigable  and  clear-sighted  coun- 
tryman." * 

In  1835,  M,  Joly,  then  professor  at  the  Lyceum  of  Mont- 
pellier,  found  in  the  cave  of  Nabrigas  (Lozere)  the  skull  of 
a  cave-bear,  on  which  an  arrow  had  left  its  mark.  Close 
by,  was  a  fragment  of  pottery  marked  by  the  finger  of  the 
moulder. 

It  was  in  the  valley  of  the  Somme  (a  river  in  the  north  of 
France)  that  M.  Boucher  de  Perthes  found  those  famous  flint- 
axes  of  the  rudest  form.  His  explorations  had  been  going 
on  for  a  long  time.  He  did  all  he  could  to  bring  these  dis- 
coveries before  the  public.  In  the  year  1836  he  began  to  pro- 
claim the  high  antiquity  of  man,  in  a  series  of  communica- 
tions addressed  to  the  Societe  d'Emulation  of  Abbeville.  To 
the  same  society,  in  the  year  1838,  he  exhibited  the  flint-axes 
he  had  found,  but  without  result.  In  1839,  he  took  these 
hatchets  to  Paris,  and  showed  them  to  some  of  the  members 
of  the  Institute.  At  first  they  gave  some  encouragement 
toward  these  researches ;  but  this  favorable  feeling  did  not 
last  long.  In  1841  he  began  to  form  his  collection,  which 
has  since  become  so  justly  celebrated.  He  engaged  trained 
workmen  to  dig  in  the  diluvial  beds,  and  in  a  short  time  he 
had  collected  twenty  specimens  of  flint  wrought  by  the  hand 
of  man,  though  in  a  very  rude  state.  In  1846,  he  published 
his  first  work  on  the  subject,  entitled  "  De  I'lndustrie  Primi- 
tive, ou  les  Arts  et  leur  Origine."  In  the  following  year  he 
published  his  '*  Antiquites  Celtiqucset  Antediluviennes,"  in 
which  he  gave  illustrations  of  these  stone  implements.  This 
work  attracted  no  attention  until  the  year  1854,  Avhen  a 
French  savant,  named  Eigollot,  made  a  personal  examination 
and  was  successful  in  his  search  for  these  relicts  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Amiens.  He  was  soon  followed  by  Sir  C.  L5'ell, 
Sir  John  Lubbock,  Dr.  Falconer,  Sir  Roderick  I.  Murchison, 
and  other  eminent  scientists. 

*  "  Antiquity  of  Man."  p.  G8. 


IXTKODUCTION.  19 

Bouclier  de  Perthes,  continuing  his  researches,  was  re- 
warded, in  the  year  1863,  by  finding  the  lower  half  of  a 
human  jaw  bone,  covered  with  an  earthy  crust,  which  he 
extracted  with  his  own  hands  from  a  gravel-pit  at  Abbeville. 
A  few  inches  from  it  a  flint  hatchet  was  discovered.  They 
were  at  a  depth  of  fifteen  feet  below  the  surface.  This  bone 
has  been  called  the  jaw  of  Moulin-Quignon,  and  is  preserved 
in  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  at  Paris. 

The  discovery  of  this  bone  produced  a  great  sensation 
among  English  geologists.  Christy,  Falconer,  Carpenter, 
and  Busk  went  to  France  and  examined  the  locality  where 
the  bone  was  found.  They  went  away  satisfied  with  both 
its  authenticity  and  antiquity.  Some  geologists,  however, 
doubted  its  authenticity  ;  but  at  the  present  time  all,  or 
nearly  all,  recognize  the  truth  of  the  conclusions  of  Boucher 
de  Perthes. 

Not  far  from  the  same  locality,  he  was  again  successful,  in 
1869,  in  finding  a  number  of  human  bones  presenting  the 
same  character  as  the  jaw  of  Moulin-Quignon. 

In  1840,  Eev.  J.  MacEnery,  of  Devonshire,  England,  found 
in  a  cave,  called  Kent's  Hole,  human  bones  and  flint  knives 
among  the  remains  of  the  mammoth,  cave-bear,  hyena, 
and  two-horned  rhinoceros,  all  from  under  a  crust  of  stalag- 
mite. Mr.  MacEnery  began  the  exjolorations  of  this  cave  as 
early  as  1825.  He  did  not  publish  his  notes  on  his  discover- 
ies but  they  remained  in  manuscript  until  1859,  when  they 
were  obtained  by  Mr.  Vivian. 

Mr.  God  win- Austen,  in  his  communication  to  the  Geologi- 
cal Society  in  the  year  1840,  states,  in  his  description  oi 
Kent's  Hole,  he  found  works  of  art  in  all  parts  of  the  cave. 

The  fossil  Man  of  Denise  was  discovered  by  a  peasant,  in 
an  old  volcanic  tuff,  near  the  town  of  Le  Puy-en-Velay, 
Central  France,  an  account  of  which  was  first  published  by 
Dr.  Aymard,  in  1844.  Able  naturalists,  who  have  examined 
these  bones,  especially  those  familiar  with  the  volcanic  regions 
of  Central  France,  declared  that  they  believed  them  to  have 


20 


ANTIQUITY    OF    MAN. 


been  eiivcloi:)ed  by  natural  causes  in  tlie  tufaceous  matrix  in 
which  they  are  now  seen. 

In  the  years  1845-1850,  Casiano  de  Prado  made  discov- 
eries on  the  banks  of  the  Manzanares,  near  Madrid.  They 
consisted  of  portions  of  the  skeletons  of  the  rhinoceros,  and  a 
nearly  perfect  skeleton  of  an  elephant  in  the  diluvial  sand. 

Fig.  1. 

^\',^  ^-^-^v  ,'-*=■ 


SrR  CiiAULES  Lyell. 

Lying  beneath  this  ossiferous  sand,  were  several  flint  axes  of 
human  workmanship. 

Near  the  town  of  Aurignac,  France,  a  workman  named 
Bonnemaison,  in  the  year  1852,  accidently  discovered  a  cave 
containing  the  remains  of  seventeen  human  skeletons.  These 
bones  were  taken  by  Dr.  Amiel,  the  mayor  of  Aurignac,  who 
was  ignorant  of  their  value,  and  consigned  to  the  p:irish  ceme- 
tery. The  spot  of  their  re-iuhumation  has  been  forgotten, 
and  this  treasure  is  now  lost  to  science.     In  1860,  the  cave 


INTRODUCTION.  21 

was  explored  by  Edward  Lartet.  After  a  long  and  patient 
examination,  lie  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  cave  was  a 
human  burial  place,  coteniporary  with  the  mammoth  and  other 
gi'eat  animals  of  the  quaternary  epoch. 

It  was  at  the  meeting  of  the  British  Association,  in  1855, 
that  Sir  Charles  Lyell  declared  his  belief  in  the  great  antiq- 
uity of  the  human  race.  He  had  before  opposed  the  idea, 
but  was  convinced  of  the  truth  by  personal  examination  of 
human  bones  and  flint  Ijatchets,  from  the  quarries  of  St. 
Acheul.  He  became  enthusiastic  in  his  investigations,  and, 
in  order  to  present  the  discussion  clearly  to  the  scientific  pub- 
lic, he  published  his  "  Geological  Evidences  of  the  Antiquity 
of  Man,"  in  1863.  In  the  last  edition  of  his  "  Principles  of 
Geology,"  he  bestows  considerable  space  to  the  discussion  of 
the  subject.  He  was  closely  followed,  in  the  same  view,  by 
other  eminent  geologists. 

The  remains  of  the  ancient  Lake  Dwellings  of  Switzerland 
were  discovered  in  the  winter  of  1853-1854.  That  winter 
was  so  dry  and  cold  that  the  water  of  the  lakes  fell  far  below 
its  ordinary  level.  On  account  of  this,  a  large  tract  of 
ground  of  Lake  Zurich  was  gained  by  the  people  throwing 
up  embankments.  In  the  jorocess  of  the  work,  the  piles  on 
which  stood  the  dwellings,  fragments  of  pottery,  bone  and 
stone  implements,  and  various  other  relics,  were  discovered.* 
Dr.  Keller,  of  Zurich,  examined  the  objects,  and  at  once 
came  to  a  right  understanding  as  to  their  signification.  He 
carefully  examined  the  remains,  and  described  these  lake 
habitations  in  six  memoirs  presented  to  the  Antiquarian 
Society  of  Zurich,  in  1854,  1858,  1860,  1863,  and  18G6.  In 
186G  these  memoirs  were  translated  into  English  by  J.  E. 
Lee,  together  with  articles  from  other  antiquaries,  under  the 
title  of  "The  Lake  Dwellings  of  Switzerland,  and  other  parts 
of  Europe."  This  work  contains  ninety-seven  plates,  besides 
many  wood-cuts. 

*  Discoveries   of   this   kind  were  made   in  1829. — Keller's  "  Lake- 
Dwellings,"  p.  11. 


22  .     ANTIQUITY   OF    MAN. 

Memoirs  of  the  Dwellers  of  different  lakes  have,  from  time 
to  time,  been  published,  but  they  are  included  in  the  trans- 
lated work  of  Dr.  Keller. 

The  far-famed  Neanderthal  skull  was  discovered  by  Dr. 
Fuhlrott,  in  the  year  1857,  in  a  limestone  cavern,  near  Diis- 
seldorf,  in  a  deep  ravine  known  by  the  name  of  Neanderthal. 
This  skull,  with  parts  of  the  skeleton  to  which  it  belonged, 
was  found  under  a  layer  of  mud,  about  five  feet  in  thickness. 
It  is  now  in  the  cabinet  of  Dr.  Fuhlrott,  Elberfeld,  Ehenish 
Prussia. 

In  1858,  a  bone-cavern  was  found  near  Torquay,  not  far 
from  Kent's  Hole.  This  cave  was  examined  by  a  scientific 
commission.  At  first  it  was  undertaken  by  the  Eo^^al  Society, 
but  when  its  grants  had  failed,  Miss  Burdett-Coutts  paid 
the  expenses  of  completing  the  work.  In  this  cave,  under  a 
layer  of  stalagmite,,  were  found  many  flint  knives,  associated 
with  the  bones  of  extinct  mammals. 

M.  A.  Fontan  found  in  the  cave  of  Massat  (Department 
of  Ariege),  in  1859,  human  teeth  and  utensils  associated  with 
the  remains  of  the  cave-bear,  the  fossil  hyena,  and  the  cave- 
lion  [Felis  ^pelcca). 

In  18G1,  M.  A.  Milne  Edwards  found  certain  relics  of 
human  industry  mingled  with  the  fossil  bones  of  animals,  in 
the  cave  of  Lourdes,  France. 

In  18G2,  Dr.  Garrigou  published  the  result  of  the  re- 
searches which  he,  in  conjunction  with  Eames  and  Filhol,  had 
made  in  the  caverns  of  Ariege.  These  explorers  found  the 
jaw-bones  of  the  caA^e-bear  and  cave-lion,  which  ha/l  been 
wrouglit  by  the  hands  of  man. 

In  the  upi)er  strata  of  the  tertiary  beds  (pliocene)  at  St. 
Prest  (Department  of  Eure),  in  the  year  18G3,  M*.  Desnoyerg 
found  the  bones  of  extinct  animals  wliich  were  cut  or  notched 
by  flint  instruments.  In  the  same  strata  Abbe  Bourgeois  dis- 
covered implements  of  stone,  lie  communicated  his  discov- 
eries to  the  International  Congress  held  at  Paris  in  18G7. 

In  18G4,    James  Bi'own  found  flint  implements   midway 


INTRODUCTION.  23 

between  Gosport  and  Southampton,  included  in  gravel  from 
eight  to  twelve  feet  thick,  capping  a  cliff  which  at  its 
greatest  height  is  thirty-five  feet  above  high-water  mark. 
These  flint  tools  exactly  resemble  those  found  at  Abbeville 
and  Amiens.  Some  of  them  are  preserved  in  the  Blackmore 
Museum  at  Salisbury. 

In  1865,  there  was  found  in  the  loess  of  the  Rhine,  near 
Colmar,  Alsace,  human  bones  in  the  same  bed  with  bones  of 
the  mammoth,  horse,  stag,  auroch,  and  other  animals. 

In  1866,  Alfred  Stevens  first  dug  out  a  hatchet  from  the 
gravel  at  the  top  of  the  sea-cliff  east  of  the  Bournemouth 
opening,  Southampton  river.  Soon  after,  Dr.  Blackmore,  to 
the  west  of  the  valley,  obtained  two  other  flint  implements. 
The  spot  was  examined  by  Lyell  in  1867. 

Dr.  Edward  Dupont,  an  eminent  Belgian  cave  explorer, 
in  the  year  1866,  found  a  fragment  of  a  human  jaw  in  the 
Trou  de  la  Naulette,  a  bone  care  situated  on  the  bank  of  the 
river  Lesse  not  far  from  Chaleux. 

At  the  International  Congress  of  1867,  M.  A.  Issel  reported 
he  had  found  several  human  bones  in  beds  of  Pliocene  nge, 
near  Savonia,  in  Liguria. 

The  Eeindeer  Station  on  the  Schusse,  in  Swabia,  was  dis- 
covered in  1867,  during  the  operations  undertaken  for  the 
improvement  of  a  mill-pond.  The  Schusse  is  a  little  river 
which  flows  into  the  lake  of  Constance,  and  its  source  is  upon 
the  high  plateau  of  Upiicr  Swabia  between  the  lake  of  Con- 
stance and  the  upper  course  of  the  Danube. 

In  1868,  Thomas  Codrington  discovered  an  oval  flint  im- 
plement in  gravel  at  the  top  of  the  Foreland  Cliff,  Isle  of 
Wight,  five  miles  southeast  of  Ryde. 

The  fossil  Man  of  Mentone  was  discovered,  m  1872,  by  M. 
Riviere,  in  a  cave  near  Nice,  France.  The  skeleton  was 
almost  entire,  and  imbedded  twenty  feet  below  the  surface  of 
the  deposit. 

In  1873,  M.  Riviere  discovered  another  human  skeleton. 


Si4  ANTIQUITY    OF    MAN. 

by  the  side  of  tvhicli  lay  a  few  unpolished  stone  implements, 
in  one  of  the  caves  in  the  same  neighborhood. 

In  1873  and  1874,  M.  lliviere  was  again  so  fortunate  as  to 
discover,  in  neighboring  caves,  the  remains  of  three  persons, 
two  of  them  those  of  cliildren.  The  skeletons  were  in  the 
same  condition,  and  do  iked  with  similar  ornaments,  as  those 
he  had  previously  discovered. 


CJIAPTEE  II. 


GLACIAL    EPOCH. 


Happily  for  the  Arcligeo-geologist,  there  is  given  him  a 
point  from  whicli  to  start  in  liis  researches  into  the  antiquity 
of  his  race.  Without  it  his  calculations  would  be  very  indefi- 
nite and  his  efforts  would  be  shorn  of  much  of  their  interest. 
The  Glacial  Epoch,  that  has  puzzled  tlie  mind  of  both  the 
geologist  and  the  astronomer,  is  a  guide-jiost  Avhere  he  may 
not  only  look  both  ways,  but  also  estimate  the  length  of  ages 
and  number  the  years  of  man.  Nothing,  then,  is  of  more 
importance,  in  this  investigation,  than  an  understanding  of 
the  condition  of  the  earth  prior  to  the  glacial,  and  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  date  and  length  of  this  epoch. 

For  untold  ages  the  earth,  to  all  appearance,  had  been 
preparing  itself  for  the  reception  of  man.  There  was  an 
abundance  of  game,  the  forests  were  beautiful,  the  domestic 
animals  had  made  their  appearance,  the  climate  was  warm, 
the  soil  rich,  and  the  coal  had  been  formed.  Everything 
seemed  to  point  to  a  bright  and  glorious  future  for  man,  who 
had  already  entered  upon  the  scene.  It  is  true  there  >ere 
fierce  and  savage  beasts  to  contend  with.  These  seemed  but 
a  motive  power  to  stir  man  to  action  and  develop  the  resources 
of  his  mind.  Should  he  fail  for  a  time  to  overcome  the  wild 
beasts  a  retreat  was  provided  in  the  hollow  recesses  of  the 
earth.  But  nature  felt  her  work  was  still  unfinished.  The 
earth  had  passed  through  the  ordeal  of  fire,  and  withstood  the 
devastations  of  water,  and  now  her  long  summer  must  come 
to  an  end.  The  arctic  regions  had  been  growing  colder  and 
colder,  and  the  change  was  felt  in  the  countries  to  the  south. 


oc  ANTIQUITY    OF   MAX. 

The  northern  animals  wore  being  clothed  with  a  hairy  or 
woolly  garment  for  their  protection.     The  aspect  began  to  be 
forbidding.     The  future  prospect  of  man  was  not  only  gloomy, 
but  foreboded  he  should  perish  along  with  the  many  species 
of   animals   that    were   gradually   succumbing  to  the   cold. 
Great  fields  of  ice  were  slowly  accumuhiting  at  both  the  poles, 
and  at  last,  by  the  power  of  their  great  weight,  assisted  by 
some  geographical  changes,  began  to  move  toward  the  equa- 
tor, crushing  and  grinding  the  great  rocks,  and  either  driving 
before  them,  or  else  destroying,  every  living  thing  in  their 
relentless  march.     Slowly  but  surely  they  moved  on.     The 
mountains  groaned  under  the  enormous  weight  of  ice.     Their 
heads  were  scarred,  their  sides  bruised,  torn  and  cut.     The 
icy  monsters  listened  not  to  the  pleadings  of  earth,  the  lowing 
of  cattle,  or  the  cries  of  man.     Centuries  elapsed  before  the 
sun  re-asserted  his  power.     The  rays  of  the  sun,  the  internal 
heat  of  the  earth,  and  other  causes,  produced  a  change.     The 
northern  ice  was  broken  up  by  the  time  it  reached  latitude 
39°  Xorth  America,  leaving  its  indelible  traces  in  the  bowl- 
ders, gravel,  beds  of  sand  and   clay  which  mark  its  course. 
In  Europe  this  sheet  of  ice  extended  as  far  south  as  Spain 
and    Corsica.     The    glaciers   of    the   Antarctic   regions   ex- 
tended as  far  as  latitude  41°  south. 

Fauna  of  Europe. — Among  the  Fauna  may  be  mentioned 
the  gigantic  elephants,  of  nearly  twice  the  bulk  of  the  largest 
individuals  that  now  exist,  which  roamed  in  herds  over 
England,  and  extended  across  the  Siberian  plains  and  from 
Belirinij  Strait  to  South  Carolina.  Two-horned  rhinoceroses 
wallowed  in  the  swamps  of  the  ancient  forests.  Hippopota- 
muses inhabited  the  lakes  and  rivers.  The  great  cave-bear, 
whicli  sometimes  attained  the  size  of  a  horse,  and  the  cave- 
tiger,  twice  as  large  as  the  living  tiger,  preyed  upon  the  ani- 
mals of  less  strengtli  than  themselves.  Troops  of  hyenas, 
larger  than  those  of  South  America,  disputed  with  other  beasta 
of  prey.     A   species    of   wild-cat,   lynx,   and  leopard  found 


GLACIAL   EPOCH.  X*7 

retreats  in  the  same  forests.  Then  there  was  a  remarkable 
carnivorous  animal  called  Macliairodus,  about  tlie  size  of  a 
tiger,  and  from  the  shape  and  size  of  the  sword-like  teeth, 
must  have  been  a  very  destructive  creature.  The  lemmii\g 
and  the  musk  ox  found  a  home,  and  the  wild  horse  pranced 
about  unrest]-ained  by  the  hand  of  man.  The  great  Irish  elks 
swiftly  moved  over  the  ground,  and  must  have  been  very 
numerous,  as  their  remains  occur  in  abundance  in  peat-bogs 
and  marl-pits.  Nor  should  it  be  unmentioned  that  there 
was  also  a  species  of  gigantic  ox  nearly  as  large  as  an  elephant, 
that  subsisted  on  the  plains.  All  these  animals  followed  the 
retreat  of  the  glaciers  and  some  of  them  were  in  close  prox- 
imity to  the  ice. 

Geological  Period. — The  glacial  epoch  occurred  during 
the  geological  period  known  as  the  post-tertiary.  The  tertiary 
had  gradually  passed  away  and  its  time  had  been  recorded  on 
the  pages  of  geological  history.  A  new  epoch  began  to  dawn. 
This  was  the  epoch  of  ice,  the  birth  and  almost  the  childhood 
of  the  post-tertiary. 

Prohable  Date. — In  discussing  the  probable  date  of  the 
glacial  epoch.  Sir  Charles  Lyell  says,  "  The  attempt  to  assign 
a  chronological  value  to  any  of  our  geological  periods  except 
the  latest,  must,  in  the  present  state  of  science,  be  hopeless. 
JSTevertheless,  independently  of  all  astronomical  considera- 
tions, it  must,  I  think,  be  conceded  that  the  period  required 
for  the  coming  on  of  the  greatest  cold,  and  for  its  duration 
when  most  intense,  and  the  oscillations  to  which  it  was  sub- 
ject, as  well  as  the  retreat  of  the  glaciers  and  the  '  great  thaw ' 
or  disappearance  of  snow  from  many  mountain-chains  where 
the  snow  Avas  once  perpetual,  required  not  tens  but  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  years.  Less  time  would  not  suffice  for  the 
changes  in  physical  geography  and  organic  life  of  which  we 
have  evidence.  To  a  geologist,  therefore,  it  would  not  appear 
startling  that  the  greatest  cold  should  be  supposed  to  have 
been  two  hundred  thousand  years  ago,  although  this  date 


JJ8  ANTIQUITY    OF   MAN. 

must  be  considered  Jis  very  conjectural,  and  one  which  may 
be  as  likely  to  err  in  deficiency  of  time  as  in  excess."  * 

Sir  John  Lubbock,  in  his  dissent  from  some  calculations 
made  by  Mr.  Geikie  on  the  general  effect  produced  by  rivers 
in  excavatinir  valleys  and  lowcnns:  the  creneral  level  of  the 
country,  says,  ''As  regards  the  higher  districts,  however,  his 
data  are  perhaps  not  far  wrong,  and  if  we  apply  them  to  the 
valley  of  the  Somme,  where  the  excavation  is  about  two  hun- 
dred feet  in  depth,  they  Avould  indicate  an  antiquity  for  the 
pala3olithic  epoch  of  from  one  hundred  thousand  to  two  hun- 
dred and  forty  thousand  years."  f 

Dana,  in  his  chapter  on  the  length  of  geological  time,  says, 
in  speaking  of  the  time  required  to  excavate  the  gorge  of 
Niagara  River,  that  ''on  both  sides  of  the  gorge  near  the 
whirlpool,  and  also  at  Goat  Island,  there  are  beds  of  recent 
lake  shells  ....  the  same  kinds  that  live  in  still 
water  near  the  entrance  to  the  lake,  and  which  are  not  found 
in  the  rapids.  The  lake,  therefore,  spread  its  still  waters, 
when  these  beds  were  formed,  over  the  gorge  above  the  whirl- 
pool. A  tooth  of  a  mastodon  (J/,  giganteus)  has  been  found 
in  the  same  beds.  This  locates  the  time  in  the  Champlain 
epoch Six  miles  of  the  gorge  have  been  exca- 
vated since  that  mastodon  was  alive 

"  There  is  a  lateral  valley  leading  from  the  whirlpool 
through  the  Queenstown  precipice  at  a  point  a  few  miles  west  of 
Lewiston.  This  valley  is  filled  with  drift  of  the  glacial  epoch, 
and  this  blocking  up  of  the  channel  may  have  compelled  it  to 
open  a  new  passage. 

"  If,  then,  the  falls  have  been  receding  six  miles,  and  we 
can  ascertain  the  probable  rate  of  progress,  Ave  may  approxi- 
mate to  the  length  of  time  it  required.  Hall  and  Lyell  esti- 
mated the  average  rate  at  one  foot  a  year, — which  is  certainly 
large.  Mr.  Desor  concluded,  after  his  study  of  the  falls,  that 
it  was  *  more  nearly  thi-ce  feet  a  century  than  three  feet  a 

♦  "Principles  of  iiec,\c,^y,"  vol.  i.  p.  28G. 
f  "  I're-Hi.storic  Times,"  p.  413. 


GLACIAL   EPOCH.  39 

year.'  Taking  the  rate  at  one  foot  a  year,  the  six  miles  will 
have  required  over  thirty-one  thousand  years  ;  if  at  one  inch 
a  year — which  is  eight  and  one  third  feet  a  century — three 
hundred  and  eighty  thousand  years. "  * 

The  calculation  made  by  Dana  is  for  the  Champlain  epoch. 
As  this  epoch  was  subsequent  to  the  glacial,  the  time  must  be 
either  thrown  still  farther  back,  or  else  allow  the  calculations 
to  begin  with  the  end  of  the  glacial. 

ProhaUe  Duration. — Lyell  has  attempted  to  form  an 
estimate  of  the  duration  of  the  glacial  epoch  by  considering 
''the  most  simple  series  of  changes  in  physical  geography 
which  can  possibly  account  for  the  phenomena  of  the  glacial 
period,"  and  enumerates  as  follows  : 

"  First,  a  continental  period,  toward  the  closft  of  which 
the  forest  of  Cromer  flourished  ;  when  the  land  was  at  least 
five  hundred  feet  above  its  present  level,  perhaps  much  higher, 
and  its  extent  probably  greater  than  that  given  in  the  map. 
Fig.  41."  (In  this  map  the  whole  of  the  British  Isles  are  con- 
nected with  one  another,  and  with  the  continent — the  Ger- 
man Ocean  and  the  English  Channel  constituting  dry  land). 

"  Secondly,  a  period  of  submergence,  by  which  the  land 
north  of  the  Thames  and  Bristol  Channel,  and  that  of  Ire- 
land, was  gradually  reduced  to  an  archipelago  ;  and  finally  to 
such  a  general  prevalence  of  sea  as  is  seen  in  map.  Fig.  39." 
(This  map  is  intended  to  represent  the  British  Isles  as 
they  appeared  above  water  when  Scotland  was  submerged 
to  two  thousand  feet  and  other  parts  of  the  isles  to  one 
thousand  three  hundred  feet.)  "This  was  the  period  of 
submergence  and  of  floating  ice,  when  the  Scandinavian  flora, 
which  occupied  the  lower  grounds  during  the  first  continental 
period,  may  have  obtained  exclusive  possession  of  the  only 
lands  not  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 

"  Thirdly,  a  second  continental  period,  when  the  bed  of  the 
glacial  sea.  with  its  marine  shells  and  erratic  blocks,  was  laid 
diy,  and  when  the  quantity  of  land  equalled  that  of  the  first 

•  "  Manual  of  Geology,"  p.  590, 


80  AKTIQUITY   OF   MAN". 

period During  this  period  tliere  were  glaciers 

in  the  higher  mountains  of  Scotland  and  Wales.     .     .     . 

"  The  submergence  of  Wales  to  the  extent  of  one  thousand 
four  hundred  feet,  as  proved  by  glacial  shells,  -would  require 
fifty-six  thousand  years,  at  the  rate  of  two  and  a  half  feet  per 
century  ;  but  taking  Professor  Kamsay's  estimate  of  eight 
hundred  feet  more,  that  depression  being  required  for  the 
deposition  of  some  of  the  stratified  drift,  we  must  demand 
an  additional  period  of  thirty-two  thousand  years,  amount- 
ing in  all  to  eighty-eight  thousand ;  and  the  same  time 
Avould  be  required  for  the  reelevation  of  the  tract  to  its 
present  height.  But  if  the  land  rose  in  the  second  continental 
period  no  more  than  six  hundred  above  the  present  level  .  . 
this  .  ,  .  would  have  taken  another  twenty-six  thousand 
years  ;  the  whole  of  the  grand  oscillation,  comprising  the 
submergence  and  reemergence,  having  taken,  in  round  num- 
bers, two  hundred  and  twenty-four  thousand  years  for  its 
completion  ;  and  this,  even  if  there  were  no  pause  or  station- 
ary period,  when  the  downward  movement  ceased,  and  before 
it  was  converted  into  an  upward  one."  * 

Lyell  admits  that  the  average  rate  of  two  and  a  half  feet 
per  century  is  a  purely  arbitrary  and  conjectural  one,  and 
there  are  cases  where  the  change  is  even  six  feet  a  century, 
yet  the  average  rate  of  motion,  he  thinks,  will  not  exceed 
that  above  proposed.  With  this  opinion,  Lubbock  believes 
most  geologists  will  agree,  f 

By  the  estimates  already  given  a  basis  is  formed  upon 
which  a  calculation  can  be  made  as  to  the  time  when  this 
epoch  began.  At  the  time  of  the  most  intense  cold  the 
eccentricity  of  the  earth's  orbit  was  .0575  ;  the  difference  in 
millions  of  miles  between  the  greatest  and  least  distances  of 
tlie  earth  from  the  sun  lOA- ;  the  number  of  days  by  which 
winter,  occurring  in  aphelion  was  longer  than  the  summer  in 
perihelion  27.8 ;  the  mean  temperature  of  the  hottest  sum- 

*  "Antiquity  of  Man,"  pp.  282,  285. 
+  "  Pre-Historic  Times,"  p.  417. 


GLACIAL   EPOCH.  31 

mer  month  in  the  latitude  of  London  when  the  summer 
occurs  in  perihelion,  113°  ;  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
coldest  winter  month  in  the  latitude  of  London  when  the 
winter  occurs  in  aphelion,  0°  7'.  Sixty  thousand  years  later  the 
eccentricity  of  the  earth's  orbit  was  but  .0332  ;  the  difference 
of  distance  in  millions  of  miles  was  6  ;  number  of  winter  days 
in  excess,  IG.l ;  mean  of  hottest  month  in  latitude  of  London, 
05°,  and  mean  of  coldest  month  12°.  It  is  evident  then  at 
this  time  (one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  years  ago)  a 
''great  thaw"  had  taken  place  and  the  glaciers  driven  bade, 
although  fifty  thousand  years  later  less  intense  cold  set  m 
again.  If  thirty  thousand  years  be  allowed  for  the  "great 
thaw "  from  the  extreme  point  of  cold,  and  that  extreme 
point  to  have  been  two  hundred  and  ten  thousand  years  ago, 
then  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  years  ago  the  glaciers 
had  become  so  broken  up  as  to  allow  vegetation  to  spring  ap 
in  many  localities,  and  the  wild  beasts  to  partially  reassert 
their  dominion.  If  to  this  be  added  the  time  required  for  the 
duration  of  the  glacial  epoch  (two  hundred  and  twenty-four 
thousand  years)  then  the  time  when  the  ice  began  to  accumu- 
late was  four  hundred  and  four  thousand  years  ago.  But  if 
the  tables  of  Mr.  Croll  be  correct,  their  beginning  could  not 
have  been  earlier  than  three  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
years  ago,  as  the  eccentricity  of  the  earth's  orbit  varied  but 
little  from  the  present,  and  five  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
years  ago  it  was  almost  identical  with  that  of  the  present.* 
During  the  last  stages  of  this  ocean  of  ice  it  must  have 

*  Principles  of  Geology,  vol.  i.  p.  2S5 ;  "  Pre-Historic  Times," 
p.  411. 

Mr.  Croll  believes  tliat,  owing  to  variations  in  the  eccentricity  of  the 
earth's  orbit  "  cold  ])eriods  regularly  recur  every  ten  or  fifteen  thou- 
sand years  ;  but  that  at  much  longer  intervals  the  cold,  owing  to 
certain  contingencies,  is  extremely  severe,  and  lasts  for  a  great  length 
of  time  ;  and  the  last  great  glacial  period  occurred  about  two  hundred 
and  forty  thousand  years"  ago,  and  endured  with  slight  alterations  of 
climate  for  about  one  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  years." — Darwin 'b 
Origin  of  Species,  p.  34;{ 


32  ANTIQUITY    OF   MAN. 

melted  very  rapidly,*  for  great  rivers  were  formed,  and  the 
water  pouring  down  its  icy  ])ed  sought  other  streams,  and  on 
the  bosom  of  the  earth  swept  away  loose  sediment,  depositing 
it  along  the  course  of  rivers  and  in  caves  of  the  earth,  cover- 

FiG.  2. 


Stkeam  issuing  from  a  Glacier. 

ing  the  remains  of  man  along  with  those   of  animals  that 
perished  during  the  long  winter  of  ice. 

*  It  would  be  plausible  to  assume  that  the  ice  melted  much  more 
rapidly  than  is  generally  supposed.  Charles  Darwin,  in  his  "Natu- 
ralist's Voyage  around  the  World,"  p.  245,  states  tliat  "during  one 


GLACIAL   El'UCll.  33 

Evidences  of  the  Existence  of  Man. — The  traces  of  inaii  in 
the  deposits  made  during  the  glacial  epoch  are  numerous. 
Out  of  the  many,  the  most  noted  will  be  given,  Avith  a  view 
to  their  chronological  order. 

In  all  pi'obability  the  very  oldest  implements  of  the  post- 
tertiary,  and  consequently  the  beginning  of  the  glacial  epoch, 
if  not  of  the  pliocene,  are  those  found  in  the  soutli  of  Hamj)- 
shire,  between  Gosport  and  Southampton.  They  came  from 
a  tabular  mass  of  drift  which  caps  the  tertiary  strata.  "  The 
great  bed  of  gravel  resting  on  eocene  tertiary  strata,  in  which 
these  implements  have  been  found,  consists  in  most  places  of 
half-rolled  or  semi-angular  chalk  flints,  mixed  with  rounded 
pebbles  washed  out  of  the  tertiary  strata.  .  .  .  Many  of 
them  exhibit  the  same  colors  and  ochrcous  stain  as  do  the 
flints  in  the  gravel  in  which  tliey  lay." 

West  of  the  Souiluimpton  estuary,  "  on  both  sides  of  the 
opening  at  Bournemouth,  flint  tools  of  the  ancient  type  have 
been  met  with  in  the  gravel  capping  the  cliffs.  The  gravel 
from  wliieh  the  flint  tool  was  taken  at  Bournemouth  is  about 
one  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  .  .  .  The 
gravel  consists  in  great  ])art  of  pebbles  derived  from  tertiary 
strat;i." 

The  oval  flint  im})lomcnt  discovered  in  gravel  at  the  top 
of  tlie  Foreland  cliff  "  is  of  the  true  paleolithic  type,  and  the 
gravel  in  which  it  is  inibeJdcd  at  the  lieight  of  about  eighty 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  may  have  once  extended  to  the 
cliffs  near  Gosport ;  in  which  case  we  should  have  to  infer  that 
the  channel  ca'lcd  tlic  Solent  had  not  yet  been  scooped  out 
when  this   region  Avas  inhabited  by  palasolithic  man."* 

It  may  be  safely  inferred  that  tlie  implements  in  the 
above  three  enumerations  were  imbedded  at  about  the  same 
time. 

very  dry  and  long  summer,  all  tlie  snow  disappeared  from  Aconcagua 
although  it  attains  tlie  prodigious  height  of  twenty-three  thousand 
feet.  It  is  probable  that  mucli  of  the  snow  at  these  great  lieiglit8  is 
evaporated,  rather  than  thawed." 

*  "Principles  of  Geology ,"  vol.  ii,  pp.  507-569. 


3-1  ANTIQUITY    or    M.VX. 

The  flint  implements  from  the  valley  of  the  Somme, 
which  have  been  of  so  much  interest,  and  convinced  so  many 
sceptical  geologists,  belong  to  the  early  part  of  this  epoch. 
This  valley  may  be  represented  by  Fig.  3. 

Fig.  3. 


Section  across  the  Somme  in  Picardt. 

1.  Peat,  twenty  to  thirty  feet  thick,  resting  on  gravel,  a. 

2.  Lower  level  gravel,  with  elephants'  bones  and  flint  tools  covered  with  fluviatile 
loam,  twenty  to  forty  feet  thick. 

3.  Upper  level  gravel,  with  similar  fossils,  and  overlying  loam,  in  all  thirty  feet 
thick. 

4.  Upland  loam  without  shells,  five  or  six  feet  thick. 

5.  Eocene  tertiary  strata,  resting  Qn  the  chalk  in  patches. 

In  explanation  of  the  above  it  may  be.  well  to  remark  that 
No.  2  indicates  the  lower  level  gravels,  and  No.  3  the  higher 
ones,  which  are  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  feet  above  the 
river.  Of  a  later  date  than  these  is  the  peat.  No.  1,  which 
is  from  ten  to  thirty  feet  in  thickness.  Underneath  the 
peat  is  a  bed  of  gravel,  a,  from  three  to  fourteen  feet  thick, 
resting  on  undisturbed  chalk.  But  betAvecn  the  gravel  and 
the  peat  is  a  thin  layer  of  impervious  clay.  This  section  of 
the  valley  of  the  Somme  is  a  pretty  fair  representation  of  the 
arrangements  of  the  different  beds  at  Abbeville,  Amiens,  and 
and  St.  Acheul. 

In  these  beds  are  the  records  of  two  drift  periods,  marked 
by  2  and  3.  The  two  are  separated  by  a  layer  of  fresh- 
water deposits,  which  contains  river  shells  and  is  sometimes 
as  much  as  sixteen  feet  thick.  The  lower,  or  gray  diluvium, 
(No.  2),  marks  the  glacial  epoch,  as  distinct  from  the  glaciers 
of  the  reindeer  epoch.  In  the  lower  gravel,  lying  immedi- 
ately upon  the  tertiary  formation,  were  found  the  flint 
hatchets,  together  with  the  bones  of  tho  mammoth  and  fos- 
sil rhinoceros. 


GLACIAL    Kl'OClI. 


35 


In  order  to  uiidcrstaud  the  deposits  still  more  clearly,  the 
following  figure  is  given. 


Fio.  4. 


__<?=» 


-^-_    C_      c' 


Chalk  ^        ""-v-£-S__a_  <c>  O  J'c 


<£^       SS&3       <i@ES& 


<3CISa       ^ss,  cg;jjjj^  jj;;^     5 


tSSCTION   OP   A   OKAVEL-PIT   AT   ST.   ACHEUL. 

1.  Vegetable  and  made  soil  from  two  to  three  feet  thick. 

2.  Brown  loam  from  four  to  five  feet  thick,  containing  a  few  angular  fllnta. 

3.  Bed  of  sand.v  marl  from  five  to  six  feet  tliick,  with  land  and  fresh-water  shell!, 
covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  angular  gravel  from  one  to  two  feet  thick. 

4.  Abed  of  partially  rounded  gravel  containing  well-rolled  tertiary  pebbles.    In 
this  bed  the  flint  implements  are  chiefly  found— ten  to  fourteen  feet  tliick. 

6.  Formation  of  chalk. 

a.  Part  of  elephant's  molar,  eleven  feet  from  surface. 

6.  Entire  molar  of  mammotli  {E primigenius),  seventeen  feet  from  surface. 

e.  Position  of  flint  hatchet,  eighteen  feet  from  surface. 

d.  Gravel  projecting  five  feet. 

At  St.  Aclieul,  in  bed  No.  4,  were  found  large  numbers  of 
flint  implements.  Some  of  tliem  liavc  the  sliape  of  a  spear- 
head, and  are  over  seven  inches  in  length.  The  oval-shaped 
hatchets  are  so  rude  in  some  instances  as  to  require  a  prac- 
tised eye  to  decide  their  human  origin.  In  the  same  bed  are 
found  small  round  bodies  having  a  tubular  cavity  in  the 
centre.  Dr.  Rigollot  has  suggested  that  these  joerf orated 
etoncs  or  gravel  were  used  as  ornaments,  possibly  strung 
together  as  beads. 


36 


AXTIQUITY    OF   MAN. 


In  this  bed,  Xo.  4,  seventeen  feet  from  the  surface,  was 
found  :i  mammotli's  tooth.  About  one  foot  below  the  tooth, 
in  densely  compressed  gravel,  was  found  a  stone  hatchet  of  an 
oval  form. 

That  this  bed  was  formed  by  action  of  glaciers  is  shown, 

•     Fio.  5. 


Flint  Implement  from  St.  AcnEtru 

Half  the  size  of  tlic  original,  which  is  seven  and  a  half  inches  long. 

a.  Side  view.  b.  Same  seen  edgewise. 

"These  spear-headed  implements  have  been  found  in  greater  number,  proper 
tionally  to  the  oval  onos,  in  the  upper  level  gravel  at  St.  Acheul,  than  in  any  of  the 
lower  gravels  in  tlic  valley  of  the  Somnie,  In  these  last,  the  oval  form  predominates, 
especially  at  \hhii\i\\(i.'"— Antiquity  of  Man,  p.  114. 


GLACIAL   EPOCU. 


37 


not  only  from  the  well-rounded  tertiary  pebbles,  but  also 
from  the  great  blocks  of  hard  sandstone,  some  of  which  arc 
over  four  feet  in  diameter.  These  large  fragments  not  oniy 
abound  at  St.  Acheul  in  both  the  higher  and  lower  level 
gravels  at  Amiens,  and  at  the  higher  level  at  Abbeville,  but 
fliey  arc  also  traced  far  up  the  valley  wherever  the  old  dilu- 
vium occurs.  All  of  these  sandstones  have  been  derived 
from  the  tertiary  strata  which  once  covered  the  chalk. 

Fig.  6. 


Fi.TNT  Implement  from  Abbeville. 

a.  Oval-shaped  flint  hafclict  from  Mautort  near  Abbeville,  half  size  of  original, 
which  is  five  and  a  half  inches  long,  from  a  bed  of  gravel  underlying  the  fluvio- 
mariiie  stratum. 

b.  Same  seen  edgewise. 

c.  Shows  a  recent  fracture  of  the  edge  of  tlic  same  at  the  point  a,  or  near  the  top. 
This  portion  of  the  tool,  c,  is  drawn  of  the  natural  size,  the  black  central  part  being 
the  unaltered  flint,  the  white  outer  coating,  the  layer  which  has  been  formed  by 
discoloration  or  bleaching  since  the  tool  was  first  made. 

The  entire  surface  of  Figure  G  must  have  been  black  when  first  shaped,  and  the 
bleaching  to  such  a  depth  must  have  been  the  work  of  time,  whether  produced  by 
exposure  to  the  sun  and  air  before  it  was  imbedded,  or  afterward  when  it  lay  deep 
In  the  BoW.— A nti(jiiili/ of  ^fan. 


38  ANTIQUITY    01'    MAN. 

As  the  flint  implements  of  Abbeville  and  Amiens  are  the 
same  as  those  of  St.  Aeheul,  and  from  the  same  beds,  what 
has  already  been  said  will  apply  to  them.  These  implements 
have  been  found  in  these  localities  in  great  numbers,  as  sev- 
eral thousand  of  tliem  already  taken  from  the  beds  will 
amply  testify. 

From  the  gravel-pit  in  which  were  found  the  flint  axes, 
at  Abbeville,  and  close  to  the  ancient  chalk,  was  taken  the 
celebrated  human  bone  known  as  the  jaiv  of  Moulin-Quiguon. 
It  was  cotcmporary  Avith  the  axes,  and  undoubtedly  some  of 
the  flint  implements  there  found  were  fashioned  by  the  man 
of  whom  that  jaw  formed  so  necessary  a  part. 

This  jaw-bone  belonged  to  an  old  man,  and  is  described  as 
displaying  "  a  tendency  toward  the  animal  structure  in  the 
shortness  and  breadth  of  the  ascending  ramus  (the  perpendic- 
ular portion  of  the  lower  jaw),  the  equal  height  of  the  two 
apophyses  (a  process  or  regular  prominence  forming  a  con- 
tinuous part  of  the  body  of  the  bone),  the  indication  of 
prognathism  (projecting  jaw)  furnished  by  the  very  obtuse 
angle  at  which  the  ramus  joins  the  body  of  the  bone.* 

Near  the  same  locality  other  human  bones  were  discovered 
which  presented  the  same  characteristics. 

Boucher  de  Perthes  having  pointed  out  that  flint  imple- 
ments could  be  found  in  the  valley  of  the  Seine,  in  beds 
similar  to  those  of  Abbeville,  the  antiquaries  were  soon 
rewarded  and  Boucher  de  Perthes'  prediction  was  fulfilled. 
M.  Gosse,  of  Geneva,  found  the  Abbeville  type  of  implements 
in  the  lowest  diluvial  deposits  associated  Avith  the  remains  of 
animals  of  that  period. 

The  discovery  made  by  Casiano  de  Prado,  near  Madrid,  is 
very  similar  to  those  of  Abbeville.  "First,  vegetable  soil; 
then  about  twenty-five  feet  of  sand  and  pebbles,  under  which 
was  a  layer  of  sandy  loam,  in  which,  during  the  year  1850,  a 
complete  skeleton  of  the  mammoth  was  discovered.    XJuder- 

•  Bucluwr,  p.  113 


GLACIAL   KPOCll.  39 

neath  this  stratum  was  about  ten  feet  of  coarse  gravel,  in 
which  some  flint  axes,  very  closely  resembling  those  of 
Amiens,  have  been  discovered."  * 

The  remains  of  man  are  also  preserved  in  caverns  asso- 
ciated with  the  fossil  bones  of  the  mammoth,  the  woolly-haired 
rhinoceros,  cave-bear,  and  other  extinct  quadrupeds.  Among 
these  should  be  noticed  Kent's  Hole,  which  has  furnished  a 
mine  of  wealth.  Of  his  discoveries  Godwin- Austen  says  : 
"  Human  remains  and  works  of  art,  such  as  arrow-heads  and 
knives  of  flint,  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  cave,  and  throughout 
the  entire  thickness  of  the  clay  ;  and  no  distinction  founded 
on  condition,  distiibution,  or  relative  position  can  be  ob- 
served, whereby  the  human  can  be  separated  from  the  other 
reliquiae,"  which  included  bones  of  the  mammoth  [E.  prbniye- 
nius),  rhinoceros  (J?,  tichorrhmns),  care-boar  ( Ursussjyelceus), 
cave-hyena  (//.  sjjckens),  and  other  mammaliir.  These 
researches  were  conducted  in  parts  of  the  cave  which  had 
never  been  disturbed,  and  the  works  of  man,  in  every  instance, 
were  procured  from  undisturbed  loam  or  clay,  beneath  a  thick 
covering  of  stalagmite  ;  and  all  these  must  have  been  intro- 
duced before  the  stalagmite  flooring  had  been  formed,  f 
These  specimens  of  man's  handicraft  Avere  found  far  below 
the  stalagmite  floor.  J  Closely  allied  to  Kent's  Hole  is  Brix- 
ham  Cave.  The  following  gives  the  general  succession  of 
deposits  forming  the  contents  of  the  cavern  : 

1.  A  layer  of  stalagmite  varying  from  one  to  fifteen  inches 
in  thickness. 

2.  Next  below,  ochreous  cave-earth,  from  one  foot  to 
fifteen  feet  in  thickness. 

3.  Rounded  gi'avcl,  in  some  places  more  than  twenty  feet 
in  depth. 

*  "  Pre- Historic  Times,"  p.  3G2. 

f  "  Antiquity  of  Man,"  p.  97 ;  "  Pre-Historic  Times,"  p.  315. 

J  The  "  Science  Kecord  "  for  1874,  p.  501,  in  speaking  of  these  imple- 
ments says,  "At  the  very  lowest  estimate,  the  flint  weapons  were 
made  half  a  million  vears  ap'o." 


40  AXTIQUITY   OF  MAN. 

In  the  second  layer  there  were  found  the  remains  of  the 
mammoth,  rhinoceros,  cave-bear,  cave-hyena,  cave-lion,  rein- 
deer, and  seven  other  species.  Indiscriminately  mixed  Avith 
these  bones  were  found  many  flint  knives,  but  chiefly  from 
the  lowest  part  of  the  ochreous  cave-earth,  varying  in  deptli 
from  ten  inches  to  thirteen  feet.  The  antiquity  of  these  can- 
not be  doubted,  from  the  simple  fact,  even  if  there  was  no 
other,  that  in  close  proximity  to  a  very  perfect  flint  tool  was 
discovered  the  entire  left  hind  leg  of  a  cave-bear,  and  every 
bone  in  its  natural  position.  From  the  bone  earth  there  Avere 
taken  fifteen  knives,  recognized,  by  the  experienced  antiqua- 
ries, as  having  been  artificially  formed.  In  the  lowest  gravel, 
underlying  all,  there  were  found  imperfect  specimens  of  flint 
knives.  The  fine  layer  of  mud  Avas  deposited  by  the  sIoav  but 
regular  action  of  water.  Since  these  layers  were  formed  the 
stream  has  cut  its  channel  scA'cnty-eight  feet  below  its 
former  level.* 

On  both  banks  of  the  Meuse,  at  Maestricht  (Hollerd)  are 
terraces  of  gravel  covered  Avith  loess.  Below  the  city,  on 
the  left  bank,  one  of  these  terraces  projects  into  the  allu- 
vial plain  of  the  ]\Ieuse.  During  the  construction  of  the 
canal  the  terrace  Avas  opened  to  a  depth  of  sixty  feet.  The 
upper  twenty  feet  consisted  of  loess  and  the  loAver  forty 
feet  of  stratified  graA'cl.  Great  numbers  of  molars,  tusks, 
and  bones  of  elephants,  together  Avitli  tliose  of  other  mamma- 
lia, and  a  human  loAvcr  jaAv  Avitli  teeth,  Avere  found  in  or  near 
this  gravel.  The  human  jaAv  Avas  at  a  depth  of  nineteen  feet 
from  the  surface,  in  a  stratum  of  sandy  loam,  beneath  a 
stratum  of  pebbly  and  sandy  beds,  and  immediately  above  the 
gravel.  The  stratum  from  Avhicli  the  jaAV  was  taken  Avas 
intact  and  had  never  been  disturbed.  But  the  jaw  Avas  some- 
what isolated,  and  the  nearest  fossil  object  Avas  the  tusk  of  an 
elephant  six  yards  distant,  though  on  a  horizontal  plane. 
This  fossil  is  probably  older  than  that  discovered  at  Lahr 

•  "  Antiquity  of  Man."  p.  98.     "  Pre-IIietoric  Times,"  p.  317. 


OLi^CJAL    r.l'OCJI.  41 

It  was  probably  covered  just  before  the  gusli  of  the  water 
when  it  first  began  to  flow  from  the  gorges  and  liad  washed 
the  ground  at  some  distance  from  the  ice.* 

The  human  skeleton  from  the  nndisturbcd  loess  of  the 
Rhine,  near  Lahr,  was  found  in  nearly  a  horizontal  position, 
but  in  such  a  manner  as  to  forbid  the  idea  of  sepulchre. 
These  bones  were  exhumed  from  a  perpendicular  clilf  of 
solid  loess,  about  five  feet  high.  The  town  of  Lahr  is  sit- 
uated four  miles  from,  and  about  one  hundred  feet  above,  the 
Ehine,  and  not  far  from  the  tributary  valley  drained  by  the 
Schuttcr,  flowing  from  the  B^ack  Forest. 

In  the  alluvial  plain  into  which  the  Schuttcr  flows  the 
the  loess  is  two  hundred  feet  thick.  The  loess  rises  eighty 
feet  above  the  Schuttcr.  At  Lahr  it  has  been  denuded  so  as 
to  form  a  succession  of  terraces  on  the  right  bank.  It  was  in 
the  lowest  of  these  from  which  the  skeleton  was  taken.  Im- 
mediately below  this  bed  there  were  found  pebbles,  and  still 
lower  down  Avas  a  bed  of  gravel  containing  rounded  stones  of 
sandstone  and  gneiss  from  the  Black  Forest. 

There  are  several  interesting  facts  connected  with  this 
discovery.  M.  Bone  considers  that  the  loess  of  the  Lahr  is 
continuous  with  that  of  the  Rhine,  and  before  the  loess  had 
been  denuded  there  was  not  less  than  eighty  feet  of  loamy  de- 
posit above  the  human  skeleton.  The  glaciers  had  deposited 
their  great  gravel  beds,  and  had  begun  to  melt.  The  melt- 
ing of  them  had  formed  a  mixture  of  loam  and  gravel.  Then 
when  the  torrents  poured  forth  from  the  glaciers  the  loam  was 
formed  without  the  pebbles.  The  unfortunate  man,  whose 
remains  were  found,  was  buried  far  beneath  the  surface,  dur- 
ing the  very  first  part  of  the  course  of  the  violent  streams 
pouring  forth  from  the  field  of  ice.  The  glaciers  were  then 
on  the  'ctreat,  and  the  incautious  man  probably  fell  a  victim 
while  on  the  chase,  f 

•  "  Antiquity  of  Man,"  p.  338  ;  Buchner,  27. 
f  "  Antiquity  of  Man,"  p.  510;  Buchner,  p,  27. 


42  ANTHiUlTY    OF    MAX. 

Tlic  cave  of  La  Naulctte,  Belgium,  afforded  a  jaw-boue 
similar  to  the  Moulin-Quignoii.  The  bone  came  from  a 
river  deposit  of  loam  covered  witli  a  layer  of  stalagmite,  and 
at  a  depth  of  thirteen  feet  from  the  surface.  Associated  with 
it  were  the  remains  of  the  mammoth,  woolly-haired  rhinoceros, 
and  flint  implements.  These  implements  present  the  same 
type  as  those  of  St.  Acheul.  With  this  jaw  were  also  found  a 
human  ulna,  two  human  teeth,  and  a  fragment  of  a  Avorktd 
reindeer  horn.  This  jaw-bone  is  very  tliick,  round  in  form, 
and  the  projection  of  the  chin  is  almost  entirely  absent.  The 
chin  is  said  to  hold  an  intermediate  position  between  that  of 
the  animals  and  those  of  the  present  race  of  men.  The  cavities 
for  the  reception  of  the  canine  teeth  are  very  wide,  and  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  things  is  that  the  three  molars  are 
reversed,  that  is  the  first  true  molar  is  the  smallest,  and  the 
last  the  largest.  The  inner  surface  of  the  jaw  at  the  point  of 
the  suture  or  symphysis,  forms  a  line  obliquely  directed  up- 
wards. Taking  the  jaw  all  in  all,  it  is  the  most  ape-like 
human  jaw  ever  discovered.* 

The  flint  implements  from  Hoxne  were  found  under  three 
different  layers  or  beds.  The  first,  vegetable,  a  foot  and  a 
half  in  depth.  The  second  Avas  clay,  seven  and  a  half  feet 
thick.  The  third,  a  bed  of  sand,  with  shells  one  foot  in  thick- 
ness. The  fourth  layer,  containing  the  implements  was  a  bed 
of  gravel  two  feet  in  depth.  The  number  of  these  flints  was 
so  firreat  that  thev  were  carried  out  bv  the  baskets-full,  and 
thrown  into  the  ruts  of  the  adjoining  road.  On  account 
of  the  great  number,  this  spot  might  have  been  the  place 
where  they  were  manufactured.  Their  date  is  not  coeval 
with  the  bowlder  clay,  but  undoubtedly  belong,  to  the  last 
of  this  epoch. 

The  human  bones  found  in  the  loess  of  the  Ehine,  near 
Colmar,  were  two  fossilized  fragments  of  the  skull.  They 
were  found  in  undisturbed  soil  along  Avith  the  fossil  bones  of 

•  Bucliner,  pp.  118,  306. 


GLACIAL   El'OCIL  43 

the  extinct  species  of  mammoth,  horse,  gigantic  deer,  aurochs, 
and  other  mammalia.  The  fragment  of  the  skull  "showed  a 
depressed  forehead,  strongly  projecting  superciliary  arches, 
and  a  type,  on  the  whole,  approaching  the  so-called  dolicho- 
cephalic, or  long-headed  form."  *  These  remains  date  so  near 
the  end  of  the  glacial  as  to  almost  enter  the  inter-glacial. 

*  Buchner,  p.  239. 


CHAPTER  III. 

GLACIAL  EPOCH— CONTINUED. 

Belgian  Caverns. — The  relics  discovered  by  Dr.  Schmor- 
ling,  in  the  caves  of  Belgium,  must  be  referred  to  the  time 
of  the  retreat  of  the  glaciers.  The  glaciers  were  still  in 
existence,  but  tlicir  receding  had  freed  immense  tracts  of  land, 
and  the  space  they  now  covered  was  small  in  proportion  to 
their  former  extent.  AVhether  it  be  considered  or  not,  that 
vegetation  greatly  flourished  and  the  great  Avild  beasts  were 
rapidly  increasing,  one  thing  must  be  noticed,  and  that  is, 
floods  must  have  succeeded  or  folloAved  closely  upon  the 
retreat  of  the  ice.  Many  remains,  referred  to  the  glacial  epoch, 
may  in  reality,  have  occupied  the  time  of  the  floods  occurring 
just  previous  to  the  commencement  of  the  inter-glacial. 

The  Belgian  Caverns,  near  Liege,  either  belong  exactly  to 
the  ice,  or  else  to  a  period  not  far  removed.  Lyell  considers 
the  older  monuments  of  the  pala3olithic  period  to  be  the  rude 
implements  found  in  ancient  river  gravel  and  in  the  mud  and 
stalagmite  caves.*  Caves  of  tliis  description  are  those  re- 
ported on  by  Dr.  Schmerling. 

The  caverns  of  the  province  of  Liege  were  not  the  dens 
of  wild  beasts,  but  their  contents  had  been  swept  in  by  the 
action  of  water.  The  bones  of  man  "  were  of  the  same  color, 
and  in  the  same  condition  as  to  the  amount  of  animal  matter 
contained  in  them,  as  those  of  the  accompanying  animals, 
some  of  Avhich,  like  the  cave-bear,  hyena,  elephant,  and  rhi- 
noceros, were  extinct ;  others,  like  the  wild-cat,  beaver,  wild 
boar,  roe-deer,  wolf,  and  hedgehog,  still  extant.     The  fosaiia 

•  "Principles,"  vol.  ii,  j).  5G0. 


c.LACiAi.  p:rocn.  45 

were  lighter  tlitiu  fresh  bones,  except  such  as  liad  their  pores 
filled  with  carbonate  of  lime,  in  which  case  they  were  often 
much  heavier.  The  human  remains  of  most  frequent  occur- 
rence were  teeth  detached  from  the  jaAv,  and  the  carpal, 
metacarpal,  tarsal,  metatarsal,  and  phalangial  bones  sepa- 
rated from  the  rest  of  the  skeleton.  The  corresponding 
bones  of  the  cave-bear,  the  most  abundant  of  the  accompany- 
ing mammalia,  were  also  found  in  the  Liege  caverns  more 
commonly  than  any  others,  and  in  the  same  scattered  condi- 
tion." *  In  some  of  these  caves,  rude  flint  implements,  of  a 
triangular  form,  were  found  dispersed  through  the  cave  mud. 
Dr.  Schmerling  did  not  pay  much  attention  to  these,  as  he 
was  engrossed  in  his  osteological  inquiries.  The  human 
bones  were  met  with  at  all  depths,  in  the  cave  mud  and 
gravel,  both  above  and  below  those  of  the  extinct  mammalia. 
The  floors  of  these  caverns  were  incrusted  with  stalag- 
mite, f  In  the  cavern  at  Chokier  there  occur  "three  distinct 
beds  of  stalagmite,  and  between  each  of  them  a  mass  of 
breccia,  and  mud  mixed  with  quartz  pebbles,  and  in  the 
three  deposits  the  bones  of  extinct  quadrupeds."  J 

FOSSIL   SKULL   OF   THE   ENGIS   CAVE  NEAR   LIEGE. 

The  fossil  skull  from  the  cavern  of  Engis  was  deposited 
at  a  depth  of  about  five  feet,  under  an  osseous  breccia  contain- 
ing a  tusk  of  the  rhinoceros,  the  teeth  of  the  horse,  and  the 
remains  of  small  animals.  The  breccia  was  about  three  and 
one-fourth  feet  wide,  and  rose  to  the  height  of  about  five  feet 
above  the  floor  of  the  cavern.  In  the  earth  which  contained 
the  skull  there  was  found,  surrounding  it  on  all  sides,  the 
teeth  of  the  rhinoceros,  horse,  hyena,  and  bear,  and  with  no 
marks  of  the  earth  having  been  disturbed. 

*  "  Antiquity  of  Man,"  p.  G3. 

f  It  lias  been  estimated  by  the  British  Association  that  it  requires 
twenty  thousand  years  to  produce  a  foot  of  stalagmite. — Science  Record. 

1874,  p.  rm. 

X  "  Principles,"  vol.  ii,  \),n'il. 


4(J  ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN. 

There  was  also  found  the  cranium  of  a  young  person,  in 
the  floor  of -the  cavern,  besides  an  elephant's  tooth.  When 
first  observed,  the  skull  was  entire,  but  fell  to  pieces  when 
removed  from  its  position.  Besides  these  there  were  found  a 
fragment  of  a  superior  maxillary  bone,  with  the  molar  teeth 
worn  down  to  tlie  roots,  indicating  that  of  an  old  man  ;  two 
vcrtcbrne,  a  first  and  last  dorsal  ;  a  clavicle  of  the  left  side, 
belonging  to  a  young  individual  of  great  stature  ;  two  frag- 
ments of  the  radius,  indicating  a  man  of  ordinary  height ;  a 
fragment  of  an  ulna  :  some  metacarpal  bones  ;  six  metatarsal, 
three  phalanges  of  the  hand  and  one  of  the  foot. 

Dr.  Schmcrling  found  in  this  cave  a  pointed  bone  imple- 
ment incrustcd  with  stalagmite  and  joined  to  a  stone. 

Of  the  Engis  skull  Professor  Huxley  has  remarked,  "As 
Professor  Schmerling  observes,  the  base  of  the  skull  is  de- 
stroyed, and  the  facial  bones  are  entirely  absent ;  but  the  roof 
of  the  cranium,  consisting  of  the  frontal,  parietal,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  occipital  bones,  as  far  as  the  middle  of  the 
occipital  foramen,  is  entire,  or  nearly  so.  The  left  temporal 
bone  is  wanting.  Of  the 'right  temporal,  the  parts  in  the 
immediate  neighborhood  of  the  auditory  foramen,  the  mas- 
toid process,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  the  squamous 
element  of  the  temporal,  are  well  preserved." 

A  piece  of  the  occipital  bone,  which  Schmerling  seems  to 
have  missed,  lias  since  been  fitted  on  to  the  rest  of  the  cra- 
nium by  Dr.  Spring,  the  accomplished  anatomist  of  Liege. 

''The  skull  is  that  of  an  adult,  if  not  middle-aged  man. 
The  extreme  length  of  the  skull  is  7.7  inches.  Its  extreme 
breadth,  which  corresponds  very  nearly  with  the  interval 
between  the  parietal  protuberances,  is  not  more  than  5.4 
inches.  The  proportion  of  the  length  to  the  breadth  is  there- 
fore very  nearly  as  100  to  70.  If  a  line  be  drawn  from  the 
point  at  which  the  brow  curves  in  towards  the  root  of  the 
nose,  and  which  is  called  the  'glabella'  {a,  Fig.  8),  to  the 
occipital  protuberance  (d),  and  the  distance  to  the  highest 
point  of  the  arch  of  the  skull  be  measured  perpendicularly 


Fio.  7 


PnoFEsson  T.  H.  Huxlet. 


GLACIAL   EPOCH. 


49 


from  this  line,  it  will  be  found  to  be  4.75  inches.  Viewed 
from  above,  the  forehead  presents  an  evenly  rounded  curve, 
and  passes  into  the  contour  of  the  sides  and  back  of  the  skull, 
which  describes  a  tolerably  regular  elliptical  curve. 

"  The  front  view  shows  that  the  roof  of  the  skull  was  very 
regularly  and  elegantly  arched  in  the  transverse  direction. 

Fig.  8. 


\ 


»V] 


Side  View  of  the  Human  Skull   found  in  the  Cave  op  Engis. 

a.  Superciliary  ridge  and  glabella.  b.  Coronal  suture. 

d.  The  occipital  protuberance. 

and  that  the  transverse  diameter  was  a  little  less  below  the 
parietal  f)rotuberances,  than  above  them.  The  forolicad 
cannot  be  called  narrow  in  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  skull, 
nor  can  it  be  called  a  retreating  forehead  ;  on  the  contrary, 
the  antero-i:>osterior  contour  of  the  skull  is  Avell  arclied,  so 
that  the  distance  along  that  contour,  from  the  nasal  dcprcs- 


60  ANTIQUITY    or   MAN. 

Bion  to  the  occipital  protubci-ance,  measures  about  13.75 
inches.  The  transverse  arc  of  the  skull,  measured  from  one 
auditory  foramen  to  the  other,  across  the  middle  of  the 
sagittal  suture,  is  about  13  inches.  The  sagittal  suture  itself 
is  5.5  inches  long.  The  superciliary  prominences  or  brow- 
ridges  (a)  are  well,  but  not  excessively,  developed,  and  are 
separated  by  a  median  depression.  Their  principal  elevation 
is  disposed  so  obliquely  that  I  judge  them  to  be  due  to  large 
frontal  sinuses.  If  a  line  joining  the  glabella  and  the  occip- 
ital protuberance  {a,  d,  Fig.  8)  be  made  horizontal,  no  part 
of  the  occipital  region  projects  more  than  one-tenth  of  an 
inch  behind  the  posterior  extremity  of  that  line,  and  the  upper 
edge  of  the  auditory  foramen  is  almost  in  contact  with  a  line 
drawn  parallel  with  this  upon  the  outer  surface  of  the  skull."  * 

Some  of  the  views  expressed  by  Professor  Huxley  are  at 
variance  with  those  of  other  eminent  scientists.  Lubbock 
reports  him  as  saying,  ''There  is  no  mark  of  degradation 
about  any  part  of  its  structure.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  fair  average 
human  skull,  Avhich  might  have  belonged  to  a  philosopher,  or 
might  have  contained  the  thoughtless  brains  of  a  savage."  f 
Mr.  Busk  agrees  and  partially  disagrees  with  Professor 
Huxley,  for  he  remarked  to  Lyell,  "Although  the  forehead 
was  somewhat  narrow,  it  might  nevertheless  be  matched  by 
the  skulls  of  individuals  of  European  race."  + 

Dr.  Schmerling,  Buchner,  and  Vogt  are  arrayed  against 
Huxley.  The  first  says,  "  I  hold  it  to  be  demonstrated  that 
this  cranium  has  belonged  to  a  person  of  limited  intellectual 
faculties,  and  we  conclude  thence  that  it  belonged  to  a  man 
of  a  low  degree  of  civilization."  §  "  From  the  narrowness  of 
the  frontal  portion  it  belonged  to  an  individual  of  small  intel- 
lectual development."  I     Buchner  says,  **  In  its  length  and 

*  "  Man's  Place  in  Nature,"  p.  146 
f  "Pre-llistoric  Times,"  p.  337. 
X  "  Antiquity  of  Man,"  p.  80. 
§  "  Man's  Place  in  Nature,"  p.  143. 
I  "  Antiquity  of  Man."  p.  80. 


GLACIAL   EPOCH.  51 

narrowness,  the  slight  elevation  of  its  forehead,  the  form  of 
the  widely  separated  orbits  and  the  well  developed  supra- 
orbital arches,  it  resembles,  especially  when  viewed  from 
above,  the  celebrated  Neanderthal  skull,  but  in  general  is  far 
superior  to  this  in  its  structure."*  Carl  Vogt  "regards 
it,  with  reference  to  the  proportion  of  length  to  breadth, 
as  one  of  the  most  ill-favored,  animal-like  and  simian  of 
skulls."  t 

The  cause  of  this  wide  difference  of  opinion  may  arise 
from  the  failure  to  observe  the  fact  that  the  older  the  forma- 
tion in  which  a  skull  is  found,  the  lower  is  the  type.  The 
ordinary  observer,  judging  by  the  cast  of  the  skull,  would  see 
nothing  ape-like  about  it,  and  certainly  would  fail  to  see  any 
indications  of  a  philosopher. 

NEANDERTHAL   SKULL. 

The  Neanderthal  skull  was  taken  from  a  small  cave  or 
grotto  in  the  valley  of  the  Diissel,  near  Diisseldorf,  situated 
about  seventy  miles  north-east  of  the  region  of  the  Liege 
caverns.  The  grotto  is  in  a  deep  ravine  sixty  feet  above  the 
river,  one  hundred  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  country,  and 
at  a  distance  of  about  ten  feet  from  the  Diissel  Eiver.  It  is 
fifteen  feet  deep  from  the  entrance  (/),  which  is  seven  or 
eight  feet  wide.  Before  the  cavern  had  been  injured,  it 
opened  upon  a  narrow  plateau  lying  in  front.  The  floor  of 
the  cave  was  covered  four  or  five  feet  in  thickness  with  a 
deposit  of  mud  or  loam,  and  containing  some  rounded  frag- 
ments of  chert.  Two  laborers,  in  removing  this  deposit,  first 
noticed  the  skull,  placed  near  the  entrance,  and  further  in 
met  with  the  other  bones.  As  the  bones  were  not  regarded 
as  of  any  importance,  at  the  time  of  their  discovery,  only  the 
larger  ones  have  been  preserved. 

Some  discussion  has  arisen  in  respect  to  the  geological 
time  of  these  bones.  There  was  no  stalagmite  overlying  the 
mud  or  loam  in  which  the  skeleton  was  found,  and  no  other 
*  Buchner.  p.  2G3.  f  Ihid.  p.  2G2. 


52 


ANTIQUITY   OF  MAN. 


bones  met  with  save  the  tusk  of  a  bear.  There  is  no  certain 
data  given  wlicreby  its-  position  may  be  known.  Professor 
Huxley  declares  that  the  bones  "  indicate  a  very  high  anti- 
quity."* Buchner  is  very  positive  in  his  statement,  and 
declares  that  "the  loam-deposit  Avhich  partly  fills  the  eaves 
of  the  Neanderthal  and  the  clefts  and  fissures  of  its  lime- 
stone mountains,  and  in  which  both  the  Neanderthal  bones 
and  the  fossil  bones  and  teeth  of  animals  were  imbedded,  is 
exactly  the  same  that,  in  the  caverns  of  the  Neanderthal, 
covers  the  whole  limestone  mountain  with  a  deposit  from  ten 
to  twelve  feet  in  thickness,  and  the  diluvial  origin  of  which 
is  unmistakable."!     Dr.  Fuhlrott   says,   '' The  joosition  and 

Fio.  9. 


Dusstl  River. 


Section  op   the  Neanderthal  Cave. 

a.  Cnvcm  sixty  feet  above  the  Diissel,  and  one  hundred  feet  below  the  surface  of 
the  country  at  c. 

b.  Loam  covering  the  floor  of  the  cave  near  the  bottom  of  which  the  human  skele- 
ton was  found. 

c.  a.  Rent  connecting  the  cave  with  the  upper  surface  of  the  country. 

d.  Superficial  sandy  loam. 

e.  Devonliin  limestone. 

/.  Terrace,  or  ledge  of  rock. 

general  arrangement  of  the  locality  in  which  they  were  found, 
place  it,  in  my  judgment,  beyond  doubt  that  the  bones 
belong  to  the  diluvium,  and  therefore  to  primitive  times,  i.  e. 
they  come  down  to  us  from  a  period  of  the  jiast  when  our 
native  country  was  still  inhabited  by  various  kinds  of  animals, 
*  "  Man's  Place  in  Nature,"  p.  158.  +  Bucbner.o.  241. 


GLACIAL  EPOCH.  63 

especially  mammoths  and  cave-bears,  which  have  long  since 
disappeared  out  of  the  series  of  living  creatures."  * 

The  diluvial  or  glacial  origin  of  the  Neanderthal  skull  is 
still  further  confirmed  by  the  discoveries  made,  in  the 
summer  of  1865,  in  the  Teufelshammer.  This  cavern  is 
situated  one  hundred  and  thirty  joaces  from  the  one  in  which 
the  human  bones  were  found,  and  on  the  same  side  of  the 
river.  In  the  loam-deposit  of  this  cave  were  found  numerous 
fossil  bones  and  teeth  of  the  rhinoceros,  cave-bear,  cave- 
hyena,  and  other  extinct  animals.  "  A  great  part  of  these 
bones,  especially  those  of  the  cave-bears,  agree  in  color, 
weight,  density,  and  the  preservation  of  their  microscopic 
structure,  with  the  human  bones  found  in  the  Feldhofner 
Cave  (in  which  the  Neanderthal  man  was  found),  and  both 
are  covered  with  the  same  dendrites,  or  tree-like  markings."! 

Before  entering  into  a  description  and  discussion  of  this 
remarkable  skull,  an  enumeration  of  the  other  bones  will  be 
given.  All  the  bones  are  characterized  by  their  unusual 
thickness,  and  the  great  development  of  all  the  elevations 
and  depressions  for  the  attachment  of  muscles.  The  two 
thigh  bones  were  in  a  perfect  state,  also  the  right  humerus 
and  radius  ;  the  upper  third  of  the  right  ulna  ;  the  left  ulna 
complete,  though  pathologically  deformed,  the  coronoid 
process  being  so  much  enlarged  by  bony  growth  that  flexure 
of  the  elbow  beyond  a  right  angle  was  impossible ;  the  left 
humerus  is  much  slenderer  than  the  right,  and  the  upper 
third  is  wanting.  Its  anterior  fossa  for  the  reception  of  the 
coronoid  process  is  filled  up  with  a  bony  growth,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  the  olecranon  process  is  curved  strongly 
down^rards.  The  indications  are  that  an  injury  sustained 
during  life  was  the  cause  of  this  defect.  There  was  an  ilium, 
almost  perfect ;  a  fragment  of  the  right  scapula ;  the  ante- 
rior extremity  of  a  rib  of  the  right  side,  and  two  hinder 
portions  and  one  middle  portion  of  ribs  resembling  more  the 
ribs  of  a  carnivorous  animal  than  those  of  man.  This 
*  Bucbuer.  p.  240  f  lUd.  p.  241 


54 


ANTIQUITY   OF  MAN. 


abnormal  condition  has  arisen  from   the  powerful  develop- 
ment of  tlie  tlioracic  muscles. 

The  cranium  is  thus  described  by  Professor  Huxley.  "  It 
nas  an  extreme  length  of  8  inches,  Avhile  its  breadth  is  only 
5f  inches,  or  in  other  words,  its  length  is  to  its  breadth  as 
100  is  to  72.  It  is  exccedingingly  depressed,  measuring 
only  about  3.4  inches  from  the  glabello-occipital  line  to 
•uhc  vertex.     The  longitudinal  arc,  measured  in  the  same  way 

Fig.  10. 


Side  View  of  the  Human  Skull  from:  Feldhofner  Cave,  in 
THE  Neanderthal,  near  Dusseldorf. 


a.  The  superciliary  ridge  and  glabella. 
6.  The  coronal  eatnre. 


c.  The  apex  of  the  lambdoidal  suture. 
d.  The  occipital  protuberance. 


as  in  the  Engis  skull,  is  12  inches  ;  the  transverse  arc  cannot 
be  exactly  ascertained,  in  consequence  of  the  absence  of  the 
temporal  bones,  biit  was  probably  about  the  same,  and  cer- 
tainly exceeded  10|-  inches.  The  horizontal  circumference  is 
23  inches.  But  this  great  circumference  arises  largely  from 
the  vast  development  of  the  superciliary  ridges,  though  the 


GLACIAL  EPOCU.  55 

perimeter  of  the  brain  case  itself  is  not  small.  The  large 
superciliary  ridges  give  the  forehead  a  far  more  retreating 
appearance  than  its  internal  contour  would  bear  out.  To  an 
anatomical  eye  the  posterior  part  of  the  skull  is  even  more 
striking  than  the  anterior.  The  occipital  protuberance  occu- 
pies the  extreme  posterior  end  of  the  skull,  when  the  glabello- 
occipital  line  is  made  horizontal,  and  so  far  from  any  part  of 
the  occipital  region  extending  beyond  it,  this  region  of  the 
skull  slopes  obliquely  upward  and  forward,  so  that  the  lamb- 
doidal  suture  is  situated  well  upon  the  upper  surface  of  the 
cranium.  At  the  same  time,  notwithstanding  the  great 
length  of  the  skull,  the  sagittal  suture  is  remarkably  short 
(4|-  inches)  and  the  squamosal  suture  is  very  straight."* 
..."  The  cranium,  in  its  present  condition,  contains  about 
sixty-three  English  cubic  inches  of  water.  As  the  entire 
skull  could  hardly  have  held  less  than  twelve  cubic  inches 
more,  its  minimum  capacity  may  be  estimated  at  seventy-five 
cubic  inches.  ...  It  has  certainly  not  undergone  com- 
pression, and,  in  rej)ly  to  the  suggestion  that  the  skull  is  that 
of  an  idiot,  it  may  be  urged  that  the  onus  ^^robandi  lies  with 
those  who  adopt  the  hypothesis.  Idiocy  is  compatible  with, 
very  various  forms  and  capacities  of  the  cranium,  but  I  know 
of  none  which  present  the  least  resemblance  to  the  Neander- 
thal skull.'*'  f 

Professor  Huxley  describes  this  skull  to  be  the  most  ape- 
like of  all  the  human  skulls  he  has  ever  seen,  and  in  its 
examination  ape-like  characters  are  met  with  in  all  its 
parts.  I  Buchner  says  that  the  face  of  the  Neanderthal 
man  must  have  presented  a  frightfully  bestial  and  savage,  or 
ape-like  expression  (see  frontispiece).  §  Professor  Schaaif- 
hausen  and  Mr.  Busk  have  stated  that  "  this  skull  is  the 
most  brutal  of  all  known  human  skulls,  resembling  those  of 
the  apes  not  only  in  the  prodigioiis  development  of  the  super- 
ciliary jirominences  and  the  forward  extension  of  the  orbits, 

*  "  Man's  Place  in  Nature,"  p.  164.  {  Buchner,  p.  116. 

+  "  Antiquity  of  Man,"  p.  84.  g  Ibid.,  p.  53. 


56  ANTIQUITY   OF   MAN". 

but  still  more  in  the  depressed  form  of  the  brain-case,  in  tho 
straightness  of  the  squamoscal  suture,  and  in  the  complete 
retreat  of  the  occiput  forward  and  upward,  from  the  superior 
occipital  ridges."* 

Professor  Schaaiihausen  and  Dr.  Buclmer  regarded  this 
skull  as  a  race-type,  and  Professor  Huxley  has  said  "  that  it 
truly  forms  only  the  extreme  member  of  a  series  leading  by 
slow  degrees  to  the  highest  and  best  developed  forms  of 
human  skulls."  f 

That  this  skull  is  a  race-type  is  evident  from  the  fact 
that  it  is  not  an  isolated  case.  The  fragment  of  the  skull 
from  the  loess  of  the  Rhine  (Alsace),  by  its  depressed  fore- 
head and  strongly  projecting  superciliary  arches,  greatly 
resembles  the  ISTcanderthal  skull.  The  skull  from  the  calca- 
reous tuff  of  Constatt,  in  its  low,  narrow  forehead  and  strong 
superciliary  arches,  resembles  the  Neanderthal.  J  The  cra- 
nium found  in  bone  breccia,  in  Cochrane's  Cave  (Gibraltar), 
*' resembles,  in  all  essential  particulars,  including  its  great 
thickness,  the  far-famed  Neanderthal  skull.  Its  discovery 
adds  immensely  to  the  scientific  value  of  the  Neanderthal 
specimen,  if  only  as  showing  that  the  latter  does  not  repre- 
sent, as  many  have  hitherto  supposed,  a  mere  individual  pecu- 
liarity, but  that  it  may  have  been  characteristic  of  a  race 
extending  from  the  Ehine  to  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  "  §  In 
speaking  of  the  Neanderthal  skull.  Professor  Schaaffhausen 
says,  "It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  a  similar,  although  smaller 
projection  of  the  superciliary  arches  has  generally  been  found 
in  the  skulls  of  savage  races.  .  .  .  The  remarkably 
small  skull  from  the  graves  on  the  island  of  Moen,  examined 
by  Professor  Eschricht ;  the  two  human  skulls,  described  by 
Dr.  Kutorga,  from  the  government  of  Minsk  (Russia),  one  of 
which,  especially,  shows  a  great  resemblance  to  the  Neander- 
thal skull  ;  the  human  skeleton  found  near  Plan,  in  Mecklen- 
burg, in  a  very  ancient  grave,  in  a  squatting  position,     .    .    . 

*  "  Antiquity  of  Man,"  p.  84.         t  Buchner,  p.  242. 

t  Buchner,  p.  54.  §  Denton's  "  Our  Planet,"  p.  270. 


GLACIAL  Erocir.  57 

the  skull  of  which  indicates  a  A'ciy  distant  period,  when 
man  stood  on  a  very  low  grade  of  development ; "  and 
other  similar  discoveries  near  Mecklenburg,  their  skulls  like- 
wise presenting  short,  retreating  foreheads  and  projecting 
eyebrows.  * 

Professor  Huxley  considers  that  the  Borreby  skulls,  be- 
longing to  the  stone  age  of  Denmark,  "■'show  a  great  resem- 
blance to  the  Neanderthal  skull,  a  resemblance  which  is 
manifested  in  the  depression  of  the  cranium,  the  receding 
forehead,  the  contracted  occiput  and  the  prominent  supercil- 
iary ridges. "  f 

Human  Skull  of  Arno. — The  human  skull,  found  by 
Professor  Cocchi  in  the  valley  of  the  Arno,  near  Florence,  in 
diluvial  clay,  together  with  various  bones  of  extinct  species  of 
animals,  is  considered  by  Carl  Vogt  to  be  of  like  antiquity 
with  the  Engis  and  Neanderthal  skulls.  J 

♦  Bucbner,  p.  265.  f  Ibid.,  p,  54.  X  Ibid.,  p.  242. 

3* 


CHAPTER  rV. 

TKE-GLACIAL    EPOCHS. 

The  age  immediately  preceding  the  glacial,  and  conse- 
quently the  post-tertiary,  is  known  as  the  pliocene  epoch, 
the  last  of  the  tertiary. 

The  tertiary  period  began  with  the  close  of  the  creta- 
ceous. A  map  of  the  early  tertiary  period  would  represent 
parts  of  Maryland,  Virginia,  the  Carolinas,  Georgia,  the 
whole  of  Florida,  the  lower  parts  of  Alabama,  Mississippi, 
Texas,  the  whole  of  Louisiana,  and  the  adjoining  territory  on 
both  sides  of  the  Mississippi,  as  far  as  Cairo,  as  covered  with 
water.  Also  a  great  sea  extending  through  Nebraska  and" 
the  western  part  of  Dacotah,  and  taking  a  north-westerly 
course  until  it  emptied  into  the  Pacific.  In  Europe,  the 
great  basin  of  Paris  (excepting  a  zone  of  chalk),  the  greater 
part  of  Spain  and  Italy,  the  whole  of  Belgium,  Holland, 
Prussia,  Switzerland,  Hungary,  Wallachia,  and  northern 
Russia,  as  one  vast  sheet  of  water.  England  and  Franco 
were  connected  by  a  band  of  rocks. 

About  the  middle  of  the  tertiary,  a  tropical  climate  and 
tropical  fauna  and  flora  spread  over  the  whole  of  Europe. 
Palms,  cedars,  laurels,  and  cinnamon  trees  flourished  in  the 
valleys  of  Switzerland,  and  more  than  thirty  different  species 
of  oak  adorned  the  forests  of  that  time. 

In  Europe,  in  the  eocene,  there  have  been  found  thirty 
species  of  crocodiles ;  many  species  of  snakes,  one  twenty 
feet  long  ;  a  dozen  species  of  birds ;  tapirs  {Palmthere  and 
Lopliiodon),  two  species  of  hogs,  some  ruminants  and  rodents. 


PEE-GLACIAL   EPOCHS.  59 

In  the  mioccnc,  among  Pachyderms  may  be  mentioned  the 
mastodon,  elephant,  dinotliere  (an  elephantine  animal),  rhi- 
noceros, hog,  horse,  tapir,  and  hoppopotamus ;  among 
Carnivores,  tlie  machairodns,  hyena,  lion,  and  dog  ;  among 
Ruviinants,  the  camel,  deer,  and  antelope.  There  were 
monkeys,  and  many  other  animals. 

In  the  pliocene,  besides  those  enumerated,  are  found  tho 
bear,  hare,  and  otlier  animals. 

In  the  tertiary  beds  of  America  have  been  found  masto- 
dons, elephants,  rhinoceroses,  deer,  camels,  foxes,  wolves, 
liorses,  Avhales,  and  other  mammalia. 

Owing  to  the  great  lapse  of  time  it  cannot  be  expected 
that  many  traces  of  man  will  be  discovered  in  this  early 
period. 

Upon  theoretical  grounds  Lyell  thought  it  very  probable 
that  man  lived  in  the  pliocene  ;  but  in  relation  to  miocene 
time,  he  says,  "  Had  some  other  rational  being,  representing 
man,  then  flourished,  some  signs  of  his  existence  could  hardly 
have  escaped  unnoticed,  in  the  shape  of  implements  of  stone 
or  metal,  more  frequent  and  more  durable  than  the  osseous 
remains  of  any  of  the  mammalia."  *  Sir  J.  Lubbock,  while 
admitting  the  existence  of  man  in  the  pliocene,  goes  farther 
and  says,  "  If  man  constitutes  a  separate  family  of  mamma- 
lia, as  he  does  in  the  opinion  of  the  highest  authorities,  then, 
according  to  all  paloeontological  analogies,  he  must  have  had 
representatives  in  miocene  times.  We  need  not,  however, 
expect  to  find  the  proofs  in  Europe  ;  our  nearest  relatives  in 
the  animal  kingdom  are  confined  to  hot,  almost  to  tropical 
climates,  and  it  is  in  such  countries  that  Ave  are  most  likely 
to  find  the  earliest  traces  of  the  human  race."f  Alfred  E. 
Wallace  out-distances  any  of  his  cotemporaries,  for  he  says, 
"We  are  enabled  to  place  the  origin  of  man  at  a  much  more 
remote  geological  epoch  than  has  yet  been  thought  possible. 
He  may  even  have  lived  in  the  miocene  or  eocene  period, 

♦  "  Pre-Historic  Times,"  p.  422.  f  Ibid.,  p.  423. 


62  ANTIQUITY   OF   MAN. 

Ma7i  in  the  Miocene* — M.  Bourgeois  has  found,  in  a 
stratum  of  miocene  near  Pontlevoy,  numerous  worked  flints, 
and  otlicr  flints  wliieh  have  been  subjected  to  the  action  of 
heat.  Tliesc  Avorks  of  man  were  associated  with  the  remains 
of  the  accrothcrium  (an  extinct  species  allied  to  the  rhinoce- 
ros), and  beneath  five  distinct  beds,  one  of  which  contained 
the  rolled  bones  of  rhinoceros,  mastodon,  and  dinotherium.t 

M.  Tardy  found  a  flint-flake  of  undoubted  Avorkmanship 
in  the  miocene  beds  of  Aurillac  (Auvergne),  together  -with 
the  remains  of  dinotherium  girjanteum,  and  machaerodus 
latidens.X 

M.  Bourgeois  reports  that  Abbe  Delaunay  had  found  near 
Pouance  (Maine-et-Loire),  fossil  bones  of  a  halitherium  (an 
herbivorous  cetacean  of  the  miocene),  with  evident  signs  of 
having  been  operated  upon  by  cutting  instruments.  § 

In  the  miocene  gravel  beds  of  Colorado  and  Wyoming 
territories,  chert-flakes,  hammers,  chisels,  knives,  and 
wrought  shells  have  been  found.  || 

Eocene. — As  yet  geologists  have  failed  to  discover  any 
traces  of  man  in  the  Eocene  epoch. 

*  "  Several  geologists  are  convinced,  from  direct  evidence,  that 
glacial  periods  occurred  during  the  miocene  and  eocene  formations, 
not  to  mention  still  more  ancient  formations." — Darwin's  (h'igin  of 
Species,  p.  343. 

t  "  Pre-Historic  Times,"  p.  421  ;  Buchner,  33. 

X  "  Pre-Historic  Times,"  p.  422. 

§  Buchner,  p.  32. 

I  "  American  Phrenological  Journal,"  Feb.  1874. 


CHAPTER  V. 

CONDITION   OF  MAK   IK   THE   EARLIEST  TIMES. 

Of  the  first  appearance  of  man  on  the  globe  there  is  no 
precise  knowledge.  His  origin  is  a  mystery.  The  place  of 
his  birth  is  generally  supposed  to  be  in  Central  Asia.  There 
the  geologist  looks  witli  a  longing  eye,  and  hopes  ultimately 
to  unravel,  not  only  the  hidden  mystery  of  the  birth-place  of 
his  race,  but  also,  how  or  tlirough  what  natural  process  he 
sprang  into  existence. 

If  the  miocene  be  the  earliest  point  in  his  history,  and 
Central  Asia  tlie  place  of  his  nativity,  then  he  was  ushered 
upon  the  scene  of  life  during  the  period  of,  and  surrounded 
by,  the  numerous  fauna  of  India.  At  this  time  her  mam- 
malia included,  besides  the  quadrumana,  elephant  (seven 
species),  mastodon  (three  species),  rhinoceros  (five  species), 
horse  (three  species),  hippopotamus  (four  to  seven  species), 
hog  (three  sjoecies),  camel,  giraffe,  sivatherium  (an  elephan- 
tine stag,  having  four  horns  and  supposed  to  have  had  the 
bulk  of  an  elephant  and  greater  height),  antelope,  musk- 
deer,  sheep,  ox  (several  species),  dinotherium,  porcupine, 
species  of  hyena,  lion,  and  many  others. 

It  cannot  be  presumed  that  man's  intellectual  faculties 
were  ordinarily  developed,  as  it  would  not  be  natural  to 
suppose  he  was  superior  to  that  of  later  times.  Judging 
from  the  remains  of  later  times,  man  could  have  been  but 
very  little  removed  from  the  brute.  It  is  natural  to  suppose 
that  at  first  he  had  no  fire,  no  weapons  of  offence  or  defence. 
His  food  must  have  been  the  herbs,  roots,  and  the  fruits 
of  the  tree,  possibly  Avith  an  occasional  morsel  of  raw  meat. 


G4  ANTIQUITY   OF   MAN. 

His  pillow  was  a  stone,  his  retreat  a  cave  or  the  boughs  of  a 
wide-spreading  tree,  and  his  clotliing  a  natural  coat  of  hair. 

In  the  presence  of  the  fierce  beasts,  man's  domain  might 
seem  to  be  of  short  duration.  Providence  has  ordered  all 
things  wisely.  Placed  low  in  the  scale  of  life — brutal,  self- 
ish, jirowling,  yet  cautious — man,  by  the  very  force  of 
circumstances,  Avas  to  develop  gradually  the  powers  of  liis 
mind.  With  the  elephant  and  tlie  mastodon  he  could  not 
cope  nor  would  they  molest  him.  To  the  fierce  carnivora  he 
might  fall  a  prey.  From  these  he  could  flee,  and  find  a 
shelter  in  the  tops  of  the  trees  or  some  secure  fastness  of  the 
earth.  Learning  his  own  strength  by  experience,  he  would 
venture  forth  on  excursions,  and  meet  face  to  face  his  deadly 
foe.  For  self-defence  he  discovered,  probably  by  accident, 
that  a  club  Avas  a  poAverful  weapon  Avith  Avhich  to  beat  back 
his  fierce  opponent.  Gradually  he  came  to  learn  that  a  sharp 
flint  driven  into  the  end  of  a  club  was  a  safer  and  more 
deadly  weapon.  With  this  he  could  Avithstand  an  unequal 
contest. 

The  mode  of  life,  together  Avith  the  trials  of  his  strength, 
developed  his  muscular  system.  His  muscles  became  large 
and  tough,  and  his  bones  thick  and  heavy.  The  earliest  type 
of  man  is  generally  supposed  to  be  doUchoccjjhalic,  or  long- 
headed. The  Avails  of  the  skull  Avere  thick,  and  the  croAvn 
loAV.  lie  was  of  ordinary  stature,  but  built  for  action,  and 
of  great  poAver.  Ilis  make-up  Avas  the  result  of  his  sur- 
roundings. 

His  advancement  Avas  very  sIoav.  Throughout  the  entire 
length  of  the  miocene  and  pliocene  epochs  it  is  not  traceable. 
There  was  no  revolution  in  his  mind ;  one  step  in  advance 
Avould  have  been  a  mighty  leap.  Nor  could  it  be  expected 
that  there  should  be  rapid  progress.  The  mine,  was  brutal ; 
and  all  the  instincts  sensual.  But  there  was  pending  a 
mighty  change.  Tbe  tropical  climate  should  change  into  a 
winter  of  snoAV  and  ice.  Man  should  feel  it,  and  be  benefited 
by  the  new  danger.     His  sluggish  mind  should  be  quickened, 


CONDITION   OF   MAN    IN   THE   EARLIEST   TIMES.  65 

and  the  inventive  genius  should  be  called  into  action.  The 
sun  no  longer  could  give  its  heat.  The  forests  grew  cold,  the 
chilling  winds  swept  over  the  plains,  and  the  retreat  in  tlie 
cave  was  damp  and  forbidding.  The  wild  beasts  were  cither 
dying  of  cold,  or  else  becoming  clothed  with  thick,  long  hair, 
and  retreating  before  the  accumulating  Snow.  Man  earnestly 
looked  about  him.  He  suffered  greatly,  and  his  numbers 
grew  less.  Fire  had  been  produced.  How,  no  one  can  tell : 
possibly  by  accident.  He  now  became  more  careful  of  tlie 
fire,  and  with  brand  in  hand  he  went  from  place  to  i)laco 
kindling  the  fires  at  the  various  resting-places.  'Nor  was  tliis 
sufficient.  His  ingenuity  was  taxed  to  its  greatest  extent. 
Colder  and  colder  grew  the  winds.  The  snow,  coming  in 
gi-eat  flakes,  was  soon  consolidated,  and  became  as  ice.  The 
body  could  not  be  kept  warm.  Clothing  must  be  had,  and 
this  must  be  furnished  by  the  wild  beasts.  Their  hides  must 
assist  in  protecting  the  life  of  man.  The  stiffened,  frozen 
animals  would  not  alone  furnish  sufficient  covering.  Knives 
must  be  invented.  From  tlie  flint  rude  knives  were  fashioned, 
by  means  of  which  the  skins  were  removed  and  transferred  to 
the  bodies  of  men.  But  the  long  winter  continuing,  the  lives 
of  the  living  animals  must  be  forfeited,  both  for  tlie  flesh  and 
and  the  skins.  Eudc,  almost  sliapeless  arrow-heads  were 
produced.  Wood  must  bo  had  with  which  to  warm  and 
cook,  and  rude  rafts  formed,  by  moans  of  which  the  swelling 
rivers  might  be  crossed.  Then  those  stone  hatchets  of  the 
Somme  were  shaped,  and  answered  the  purpose. 

Man  was  at  last  prepared  to  face  the  rigors  of  winter,  the 
perils  of  ice,  and  secure  himself  against  starvation.  Not  con- 
tent with  his  conflicts  with  nature,  his  brutal  jjassion  is 
aroused  against  his  fellows.  Death-dealing  blows  fall  rapidly 
upon  each  other,  the  blood  flows  freely,  the  bones  give  way, 
and  the  weaker  one  has  succumbed.  There  are  fierce  conten- 
tions over  the  common  prey,  and  the  strong  impose  upon  the 
weak.  True  to  his  instinct,  he  is  gregarious.  He  lives  in  com- 
munities ;  and  the  more  daring — tlio  hunters — liavinjj:  tlieir 


n 


66  ANXrQUITY    OF    MAN. 

common  places  of  meeting,  fashion  their  weapons,  and  vie 
with  each  other  in  feats  of  prowess. 

During  tlie  glacial  epoch  the  condition  of  man  must  have 
remained  unchanged,  after  he  had  supj^lied  himself  with  rude 
stone  weapons.  His  time  was  spent,  for  the  most  part,  in 
self-preservation.  He  was  retreating  before,  yet  bounding 
over,  the  frozen  flood  in  pursuit  of  game.  This  experience 
must  ultimately  tell  for  good.  AVhen  the  glaciers  began  to 
recede,  man  followed  closely,  and  forgot  not  the  value  of  those 
stone  weapons  which  had  secured  food  for  himself.  They 
served  against  the  cave-bear,  cave-hyena,  cave-lion,  and 
would  be  of  great  service  in  the  ages  yet  to  come.  By  a  little 
remodelling  they  could  be  used  to  greater  advantage;  and  this 
change  of  shape  was  accomplished,  and  other  uses  of  flint 
were  made  known. 

Man's  form,  aspect,  and  true  position  are  comprehended 
by  the  relics  of  the  glacial  age.  The  human  bones  tell  a  tale 
which  any  anatomist  may  read,  and  even  one  not  well  skilled 
in  the  art.  The  primitive  type  is  no  mystery,  and  those 
fossil  bones  tell  of  the  terrific  strifes  of  by-gone  times. 

The  Neandertlial  man  has  already  been  described.  Its 
structure  is  animal.  Its  history  agrees  with  the  generally 
received  idea  of  primitive  man  as  conceived  by  the  geologist. 
The  illustration  (frontispiece)  presents  him  bestial  and  ape- 
like. A  powerful  organization,  and  well  adapted  to  those 
times.  His  bones  tell  of  fearful  conflicts.  He  lived  to  an 
old  age,  as  the  traces  of  every  suture  are  effaced.  His  skull 
was  very  thick.  The  strong,  prominent  superciliary  arches 
denote  large  perceptives,  making  him  watchful  and  always  on 
the  alert.  Those  bones  tell  of  a  terrible  conflict.  The  left 
arm  was  broken  ;  who  knows  but  in  a  contest  with  the  great 
cave-bear.  He  survived  tlic  contest  and  lived  to  see  that  arm 
dwindle  and  become  almost  useless.  Over  the  right  eye  he 
received  a  blow,  from  some  source,  so  great  as  to  carry  away 
a  portion  of  the  bone.  The  claw  of  a  cave-bear,  or  a  flint 
weapon  in  the  hand  of  one  of  his  race,  may  have  produced 


COXDITION"    OF   MAN    IX   THE    K.VULIEST   TIMES.  67 

that  fracture.  Still  he  lived,  and  the  wound  healed.  All 
this  tells  of  his  strength  and  hardihood.  It  gives  an  inside 
view  of  the  wonderful  hardships  and  vicissitudes  of  primeval 
man. 

The  Engis  skull  belongs  to  the  same  type,  though  less 
bestial.  Possibly  ■  this  individual  did  not  enter  upon  the 
chase,  and  engage  in  the  manly  pursuits  of  those  times.  He 
may  have  been  an  adviser  or  a  dandy  ;  or,  his  ingenuity  may 
have  led  him  to  the  vocation  of  fashioning  weapons  and  im- 
plements from  tlie  flint. 

In  the  time  of  the  Engis  man  there  were  large  as  well  as 
short,  heavy-set  men.  In  the  same  cavern  there  was  found  a 
clavicle  belonging  to  a  young  person  who  must  have  been  of 
great  stature. 

The  jaws  of  La  Naulette  and  Moulin-Quignon  display  a 
great  tendency  to  animal  structure,  and  confirm  the  impres- 
sions as  given  of  the  primitive  condition  of  man  during  the 
glacial  and  pre-glacial  agea, 


CHAPTER  VI. 


INTEK-OLACIAL   EPOCH. 


The  glaciers  have  departed.  Summer  comes  again. 
The  forests  bloom  and  the  wild  beast  roams  about.  Many 
species  withstood  the  long  siege  of  cold  ;  others  perished  ; 
still  others  followed  the  ice  as  it  retreated,  preferring  the 
cold  to  the  coming  heat.  The  floods  had  abated  and  man 
spread  himself  over  the  different  tracts  blooming  with  flowers 
and  radiant  with  earthly  splendors. 

The  evidences  of  man's  existence  during  this  period  arc 
numerous,  consisting  in  works  of  art  and  fossil  remains. 
Only  a  few  examples  are  given,  as  not' many  will  be  required 
to  present  the  evidence  and  show  man's  condition. 

The  liYcna-den  at  AVokey  Hole,  explored  by  Mr.  Daw- 
kins,  affords  specimens  of  the  works  of  man.  When  discov- 
ered this  den  Avas  filled  to  the  roof  with  debris.  Under  this 
rubbish  was  found  several  layers  of  the  excrement  of  the 
cave-hyena  (//.  S2)ekea),  each  of  which  indicates  an  old  floor 
and  a  separate  period  of  occupation. 

The  implements  were  under  these  layers  of  excrement, 
showing  that  the  cave  had  been  occupied  by  the  hyenas  after 
the  time  of  the  savages.  These  implements  had  not  been 
disturbed  by  the  action  of  water.  In  the  bone  earth  along 
with  the  remains  of  the  cave-hyena  Avere  found  those  of  the 
mammoth,  Siberian  rhinoceros,  {R.  ticliorrldnns),  gigantic  ox 
{JBos  primigenius),  gigantic  Irish  deer  {Megaceros  Ilihernicus), 
reindeer,  cave-bear,  cave-lion  {FeJis  spelcea),  wolf  {Cams 
lupus),  fox  [Cams  vidpes),  and  the  teeth  and  bones  of  the 
horse  in  great  numbers.     Intermixed  Avith  these  bones  were 


n 

3' 

•s 

3 

3 

N 

O 

0 

5 

0 

■ft 

0 

n 

B- 

tn 

re 

3 

ITQ 

0 

n 

s 

o 

3 

5' 

0 
3 

3" 

re 

5\ 

a. 

ft 

^ 

p 

=r 

n' 

■-^ 

3- 

in' 

p- 

a 

3' 

^ 

P 

0 

3 

p 

3 

^ 

P 

•-I 

B'. 

Lfl 

c 

o 

c 

5- 

en 

3 
c 
0 

;3' 

in 

n 

n* 
P 
3 

0 

n 

tA 

3- 

3 

<' 

cr 

p 

n 

> 

rT 

s 

3 

■' 

~ 

P 

a 

^ 

?^ 

3* 

bi 

n 

re 

0 

£L 

3 

3 

E' 

o* 

"^ 

"*» 

a- 

re 

ft 

p 

p 

3- 

:j- 

0 

„ 

p 

o 

^*1 

P 

re 

3- 

3- 

3 

=7* 

rt 

3" 

5- 

o 

O 

o 

3- 

re 
re 

■0 
0 
a. 

P 

-I 

3 
p 
a- 

3 
en 

5- 

re 

c' 
3 

pi* 

Ci. 

V) 

0 

0 

? 

re 
•-( 
3 

p 

5" 

•^^ 

0 

^ 

-1 

i/t 

1// 

n 

n 

>-( 
n 

Q 
3 

til 

O 

c 

a. 

3- 
o_ 

K 

oq 

0 
3 

0-' 
re 

>J 
re 

a> 

0 
3 

p 

3 

p 

cr 
re 

0 

-■ 

0 

re 

0 

o" 

S 

3 
3- 

re 

0 
p 

3 

n 

3- 

fi 

3 
tn 
re 
a. 

M 

n 

oT 

0 

O) 

0 

H 

&. 

re" 

-c 

•-^ 

in 

5; 

n* 

re 
re 

P 

3* 

» 

n 

P 
3 
c 

V)' 

3- 

re 

3* 
fD 

re 
0 

0 

3 
n 

3' 

3- 
re 

D- 

5" 

H 
1 

a- 

^ 

3 

P_ 

-t 

H 

o 

o 

re 

vi 

0 

3 

crq 

5^ 

R 

M 

o" 

n 

re 

H 

E3 
O 

re 

Q. 

n> 

H 

P 

0 
3 

3" 
re 

3 

p 

t— 1 

O 

v' 

3" 

n 

0 

^ 

Kl 

tJ 

^ 

re 

c 

^ 

p 

n 

trt 

3" 

re 

3 
p 

d 

3 

"2. 
n 

3 
re 

as 

p 

a 

0 
0 

c 

0- 

1/3 

n. 

^ 

0 

f^ 

s 

0 

5' 

^ 

re 

3- 

0 

p 

C/5 

y 

re 

5< 

n 

'1 

0 

t/3 

0 

■• 

r* 

c 

:5 

re 
3 

3' 

P 

re 

?■ 

3" 

p 

P 

3 

/-> 

0 
re 

3 

C 

n 

re 

re 
^^ 
0* 

5- 

0 

0 

P 

^ 

^ 

3* 

p 

(/) 

0' 

3- 

> 

3 

S* 

3- 

re 

re 

Q 

ex. 

P 

re 

cfo 

Ora_ 

n 
re 

fc*l 

0* 

p 

0 

•D 

re 

0^ 

*^ 

0 

a" 

^* 

0 

rr 

c 

^ 

Oq 

3 

3 

0 

C- 

n 

n 

a 

a 

INTER-GLACIAL   EPOCH. 


71 


chipped  flints,   a  bleaclied   flint  weapon  of  the   spear-head 
Amiens  type,  and  arrow-heads  made  of  bone. 

In  tlie  cavern  of  Maccagnone,  in  Sicily,  there  were 
found  aslies  and  rnde  flint  implements  in  a  breccia  containing 
the  bones  of  the  elephant  [E.  antiqims),  hyena,  a  large  bear, 
lion,    (probably   F.    spelcea),   and    large   numbers   of   bonee 


Fig.  13, 


Section  op  the  SEPULcmiAL  Grotto,  in  the  Hill  of  Fajoles, 

AtmiGNAC. 

O.  Vault  in  which  the  seventeen  human  skeletons  were  found. 

b.  Layer  of  made  ground,  two  feet  thick,  inside  the  grotto  in  which  a  few  human 
bones,  with  entire  bones  of  extinct  and  living  species  of  animals,  and  many  works 
of  art,  were  imbedded. 

c.  Layers  of  ashes  and  charcoal  eight  inches  thick,  containing  broken,  burned,  and 
gnawed  bones  of  extinct  and  living  mammalia,  also  hearth-stones  and  works  of  art ; 
no  human  bones. 

(1.  Deposit  with  simihir  contents  ;  also  a  fow  scattered  cinders. 

e.  Tahis  of  rubbish  washed  down  from  the  hill  above. 

/,  g.  Skib  of  rock  which  closed  the  vault, 

i.f.  Kabbit-burrow. 

h,  k.  Original  terrace. 

A'.  Niimmulitic  limestone. 


72  A.NTIQUITY    OF    MAN". 

belonging  to  the  hippopotamus.  TJie  concrete  of  ashes  had 
once  filled  the  cavern,  and  a  large  piece  of  bone  breccia  was 
still  cemented  to  the  roof. 

The  vast  number  of  hij)popotamuses  implies  that  the  physi- 
cal condition  of  the  country  was  different  from  what  it  is  at 
present.  The  bone  breccia  cemented  to  the  roof,  and  coated 
with  stalagmite,  testifies  that  the  cave,  at  some  time  since  the 
formation  of  the  breccia,  has  been  washed  out.  The  exact 
time  of  the  formation  of  this  breccia  cannot  be  given,  but,  in 
all  jDrobabilit}',  not  long  after  the  extinction  of  the  cave-bear, 
if  not  before. 

The  cave  or  grotto  of  Aurignac,  in  Avhich  the  seventeen 
human  skeletons  were  found,  was  carefully  examined  by 
Lartet  eight  years  after  its  discovery.  Tlic  recess  was  formed 
in  nummulitic  limestone.  In  front  of  the  grotto,  and  next  to 
the  limestone  (c.  Fig.  12)  was  a  layer  of  ashes  and  charcoal, 
eight  inches  thick,  containing  hearth-stones,  works  of  art,  and 
broken,  burned,  and  gnawed  bones  of  extinct  and  recent 
mammalia.  Immediately  above  this  layer  (d)  was  another,  of 
made  ground,  two  feet  thick,  extending  into  the  grotto  ;  and 
its  contents  similar  to  the  other,  save  that  within  the  grotto 
were  found  a  few  human  bones.  The  grotto  Avas  closed  by  a 
slab,  and  the  made  earth  witliout  was  covered  by  a  talus  of 
rubbish  (e),  washed  down  from  the  hill  above. 

In  these  lavers  were  found  not  less  than  one  hundred  flint 
instruments,  consisting  of  knives,  projectiles,  sling-stones, 
chips,  and  a  stone  made  for  the  purpose  of  modelling  the 
flints.  The  bone  implements  were  barbless  arrows,  a  wcll- 
shajied  and  sharply  pointed  bodkin  made  of  the  horn  of  the 
roe-deer,  and  other  tools  made  of  reindeer  horn.  Besides 
these  there  Avere  found  eighteen  small  round  and  flat  jilates, 
of  a  white  shelly  substance,  made  of  some  species  of  cockle 
{cardium),  pierced  tlirough  the  middle  ;  also  the  tusk  of  a 
young  cave-bear,  tlie  crown  of  which  had  been  carved  in  imi- 
tation of  the  licad  of  a  bird. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  different  species  found  iu  the 


INTER-GLA.CIAL   EPOCH.  io 

layers,  together  with  the  approximate  number  of  individuals 
belonging  to  each : 

I.-  CARNIVOEA. 

Nam'ber  of  Individuals. 

1.  Cave  Bear  (ZT".  Spelmus) 5-6 

2.  Brown  Bear  {U.  arctos) .-.         1 

3.  Badger  {Melcs  taxus) —     1-3 

4.  Polecat  (Futorius  vulgaris) 1 

5.  Cave  Lion  (Fells  .fpekea) 1 

6.  Wild  Cat  (Felis  Catusferus) 1 

7.  Hyena  [FI.  spelcca) 5-6 

8.  Wolf  [Caim  Ixpus) 3 

9.  Fox  (C.  vulpes). ...1&-20 

II.— HERBIVORA. 

1.  MnmiTaoth  (E.  primif/cniiis). Two  molars  and  an  astragalus. 

2.  Rhinoceros  (i?.  UcJiorrhinus) -. 1 

3.  Horse  {Eqniis  caballus) 12-15 

4.  Ass  {E.  asiitus)^ _ 1 

5.  Boar  (Sus  scrofa) Two  incisors. 

6.  Stag  ( Certus  elcphas) 1 

7.  Gigantic  Irish  Deer  {Megaceros  HUernicus) 1 

8.  Roebuck  (C.  capreolus) -.     3-4 

9.  Reindeer  (C.  tarandus)... 10-12 

10.  Aurochs  {Bison  Europcuus) 12-15 

The  bones  on  the  outside  of  the  grotto  were  found  to  be 
split  open,  as  if  for  the  extraction  of  the  marrow,  and  many 
of  them  burned.  The  spongy  parts  were  wanting,  having 
been  gnawed  off  by  the  hyenas. 

M.  Lartet  came  to  the  conclusion  that  this  grotto  was  a 
•  place  of  sepulchre,  and  the  broken  or  split  bones  were  the 
remnants  of  the  funeral  feasts.  This  he  arijued  from  the 
fact  that  the  bones  within  the  girotto  were  not  split,  broken 
or  gnaweil,  save  the  astragalus  of  the  mammoth.  This  meat 
was  placed  in  the  grotto,  probably  as  an  offering  to  the  dead. 
The  bones  without  the  cave  were  scraped,  and  while  the  men 
were  yet  engaged  in  the  funeral  feast,  the  hyenas  prowled 
about  the  spot,  and  at  the  close  of  the  banquet,  devoured  the 


74  ANTIQUITY   OP   MAK. 

flesh  that  remained.  The  slab  in  front  of  the  cave  debarred 
their  entrance,  and  consequently  the  bones  and  human 
remains  within  were  left  untouched. 

The  observations  made  bv  M.  Cartailhac,  in  18T0,  lead  to 
different  conclusions.  On  close  inspection,  he  discovered  a 
flifference  in  the  color  of  the  walls  of  the  cave,  indicating  that 
the  lower  deposit  was  of  a  yellow  color,  and  the  next  above 
of  a  much  lighter  tint.  In  the  crevices  of  the  lower  ho 
found  a  tooth  of  the  rhinoceros,  one  of  the  reindeer,  and 
some  fractured  bones  of  the  cave-bear.  In  the  higher  deposit 
occurred  some  small  bones  of  living  animals  and  of  man,  and 
a  fragment  of  pottery.  From  these  evidences,  M.  Cartailhac 
inferred  that  the  lower  deposits  of  the  grotto  corresponded 
witn  tnat  outside  ot  it,  cud  ihy  layer  containing  human  bones 
was  formed  at  a  rubsequent  li.ne. 

That  this  grotto  was  a  place  of  resort  at  a  very  early 
period  is  proven  from  the  numerous  remains  of  the  cave- 
bear.  This  animal  was  one  of  the  first  of  lho=e  great  post- 
tertiary  niainmaiia  to  become  extinct.  The  exact  position  of 
the  remains  of  the  reindeer  is  not  given.  If  its  bones  were 
intermi.xed  with  the  others  and  found  in  the  lowest  as  well  as 
the  other  layers,  it  would  indicaie  that  the  climate  was  not 
very  warm  during  lhedepoi«it  of  the  layers,  but  to  have  been 
similar  to  that  of  Switzerland  of  the  present  day.  The 
probability  is.  the  reindeer  bones  did  not  occur  in  the  lowest 
layer,  and  hence  that  layer  was  formed  during  the  tropical 
climate,  and  the  reindeer  bones  and  human  skeletons  were 
consigned  to  the  grotto  about  the  close  of  the  inter-glacial, 
or  beginning  ol  the  reindeer  epoch. 

The  tossil  man  of  Denise.  taken  from  an  old  volcanic  tuff. 
must  be  assigned  to  this  period,  since  there  have  been  found, 
in  similar  blocks  ot  tuff  in  the  same  region,  the  reraaios  of 
the  cave  hyena  and  hippopotamus  major.  This  fossil  man 
consists  of  a  frontal  part  of  the  skull,  the  upper  jaw.  with 
t3eth.  belonging  to  both  an  adult  and  young  individual ;  a 
radius,  some  lumbar  vertebrae,  and  some  metatarsal  bones. 


IXm:-GLACLiX   EPOCIL  7i 

The  taSt  is  hght  and  porotis,  :f  tie  bones  penetrat* 

into  the  more  compact  roei. 

In  tie  mbbisJi  heap.  ":  ^-''  "  :  •  ::.  ai  liie  so'arce  oi 
{V-^  •^  ' --CC.    -Vere  irere  .^„-.  .•..i..   :..         ■"  ■-    -ii  hnndred 

SI  .  .  _       -         - .  a  qnanriiT of  panJy  -wi _ :s  and  bones 

of  the  reindeer.  The  bones  were  so  nnmeTOns  that  Mr.  Oscar 
Fraas  tras  er  to  pnt  torrether  a  complete  skeleton  of  the 

reindeer  iR-hich  is  noir  preserved  in  the  mnseum  of  Stnttgart. 
Most  of  :"     '  ■  ■}  split  open  for  the  pnrposte  of  exnract- 

irr  "■  •  • -^  "■---■'--•  *^'^he5,  and 

a  ;      -         -   : -... :..-..  .    ^-  ^-re 

al^  -.es  rf  c-r'her    ,  -,  -       _    -   :       _.    .:      .  .,.    rie 

fox,  and  other  ..  -  noir  liTinsr  in  hi^h  northern  latitndes. 

Speaiking  of  this  station.  Dr.  Buehner  says,  "Hot  only  the 

c^areful  inTc-    ,       ns  of  the  jreofmostic  conditions  of  the 

'    ■  ■       flora  of  the  time  (for  remains  of  mosses 

^.     „  :._.    . ....      :  :^...„;:.     .  .  .  .  l.gS  tiO 

The  r"..                .  jj  or  that  it  r.r?  exactly  to  the 

interval  betwefen  Ihe  two  _   ,     ,.  'i  in  all  j  : 

biliiT  S^            v-id  has  experienoed.  Mr.  E.  Besor  deiclared 

this  deposit  to  be  Di/e  itrmmal  ■  ( •&/  i3m  E                  ", 

tt:  ■  '       ,3  formerly  very  larg-e.     li. .  _  lo  i.'.m,, 

ir.-:  ■  .  of  a  r  :.-.„  .^  a  free  and 

i.q'i'^      _    -  :.  thdr -      .      .  .:j  been  foand  only 

in  caves."  * 

From  the  renaarks  of  Dr.  Bnehner.  the  sreat  number  of 
bones  of  the  reindeer,  and  some  show  of  advancement  in  the 
arts,  it  may  be  safe  t:  -    -      -  ,r  this  station  belongs  to 

the  close  of  the  inter-^ 

♦  I  - ;  '-n-cT,  p.  274. 


74  ANTIQUITY   OF  MAN. 

flesh  tliat  remained.  The  slab  in  front  of  the  cave  debarred 
their  entrance,  and  consequently  the  bones  and  human 
remains  within  were  left  untouched. 

The  observations  made  by  M.  Cartailhac,  in  1870,  lead  to 
different  conclusions.  On  close  insi^ection,  he  discovered  a 
difference  in  the  color  of  the  walls  of  the  cave,  indicating  that 
the  lower  deposit  was  of  a  yellow  color,  and  the  next  above 
of  a  much  lighter  tint.  In  the  crevices  of  the  lower  ho 
found  a  tooth  of  the  rhinoceros,  one  of  the  reindeer,  and 
some  fractured  bones  of  the  cave-bear.  In  the  higher  deposit 
occurred  some  small  bones  of  living  animals  and  of  man,  and 
a  fragment  of  pottery.     From  these  evidences,  M.  Cartailhac 

inferred  that  the  lower  deposits  of  tlie  grotto  corresponded 
witn  that  outside  ot  it,  t.iKt  tlio  iayer  containing  human  bones 
was  formed  at  a  fubsequeiit  ti^ne. 

That  this  grotto  was  a  place  of  resort  at  a  very  early 
period  is  proven  iVom  the  numerous  remains  of  the  cave- 
bear.  This  animal  was  one  of  the  first  of  those  great  post- 
tertiary  luammaiia  to  become  extinct.  The  exaot  position  of 
the  remains  of  the  reindeer  is  not  given.  If  its  bones  were 
intermi.xed  wilh  the  others  and  found  in  the  lowest  as  well  as 
the  other  layers,  it  would  indicate  that  the  climate  was  not 
very  warm  during  the  deposit  of  the  layers,  but  to  have  been 
similar  to  that  of  Switzerland  of  the  present  day.  The 
probability  is,  the  reindeer  bones  did  not  occur  in  the  lowest 
layer,  and  hence  that  layer  was  formed  during  the  tropical 
climate,  and  the  reindeer  bones  and  human  skeletons  were 
consigned  to  the  grotto  about  the  close  of  the  inter-glacial, 
or  beginning  ot  the  reindeer  epoch. 

The  tossil  man  of  Denise,  taken  from  an  old  volcanic  tuff', 
must  be  assigned  to  this  period,  since  there  have  been  found, 
in  similar  blocks  ot  tuif  in  the  same  rcoion,  the  reraaios  of 
the  cave  hyena  and  hippopotamus  major.  This  fossil  man 
consists  of  a  frontal  part  of  the  skull,  the  upper  jaw,  with 
teeth,  belonging  to  both  an  adult  and  young  individual ;  a 
radius,  some  lumbar  vertebiae,  and  some  metatarsal  bones. 


I 


INTEK-GLACIAL   EPOCU.  75 

The  tuff  is  light  and  porous,  and  none  of  the  bones  penetrate 
into  the  more  comijact  rock. 

In  the  rubbish  heap,  or  reindeer  station,  at  the  source  of 
the  Sehusse,  tliere  were  discovered  more  than  six  hundred 
split  flints,  with  a  quantity  of  partly  worked  antlers  and  bones 
of  the  reindeer.  The  bones  Avere  so  numerous  that  Mr.  Oscar 
Fraas  was  enabled  to  put  together  a  complete  skeleton  of  the 
reindeer  which  is  now  preserved  in  the  museum  of  Stuttgart. 
Most  of  the  bones  were  split  open  for  the  purpose  of  extract- 
ing the  marrow.  There  were  numerous  remains  of  fishes,  and 
a  fish-hook  manufactured  from  reindeer  horn.  There  were 
also  the  bones  of  other  animals,  such  as  the  glutton,  arctic 
fox,  and  other  animals  now  living  in  high  northern  latitudes. 

Speaking  of  this  station.  Dr.  Buchner  says,  "  Not  only  the 
careful  investigations  of  the  geognostic  conditions  of  the 
place,  but  also  the  flora  of  the  time  (for  remains  of  mosses 
were  found  which  now  live  only  in  the  extreme  north),  leave 
no  doubt  that  the  reindeer  station  on  the  Sehusse  belongs  to 
the  glacial  epoch,  or  that  it  probably  belongs  exactly  to  the 
interval  between  the  two  glacial  epochs  which  in  all  proba- 
bility Switzerland  has  experienced.  Mr.  E.  Desor  declared 
this  deposit  to  be  the  terminal  moraine  of  tlie  Rhine-glacier, 
which  was  formerly  very  large.  Moreover,  according  to  him, 
this  discovery  is  particularly  remarkable,  because  it  is  the 
first  example  of  a  station  of  the  reindeer-men  in  a  free  and 
open  deposit,  their  remains  having  hitherto  been  found  only 
in  caves."* 

From  the  remarks  of  Dr.  Buchner,  the  great  number  of 
bones  of  the  reindeer,  and  some  show  of  advancement  in  the 
arts,  it  may  be  safe  to  conclude  that  this  station  belongs  to 
the  close  of  the  inter-glacial. 

*  Bucliner,  p.  274. 


CHAPTER  VIT. 

CONDITION   OF  MAX   IX  THE   IXTER-GLACIAL. 

The  Inter-Glacial  period  continued  a  great  length  of 
time,  covei'ing  many  thousands  of  years. 

Man  is  an  improvable  being,  and  some  advancement  may 
bo  expected  in  his  condition.  His  mode  of  life,  and  con- 
tinued conflicts  with  the  fierce  wild  beasts,  would  tax  his 
every  device.  Necessity  compelled  him  to  be  inventive. 
The  limited,  bestial  mind  which  lie  possessed,  could  not 
grapple  with  the  higher  problems  of  existence.  United 
efforts  and  fortified  places  were  beyond  his  thoughts.  Those 
old  axes  of  flint  were  great  objects  to  his  mind,  and  one  step 
beyond  them  was  a  great  stride  in  progress.  That  they 
developed  but  little  cannot  be  wondered  at,  not  only  from 
their  low  typo,  but  also  from  the  knowledge  that  even  in  the 
era  of  history  tliere  are  nations  whose  civilization  has  become 
fixed  and  stereotyped  for  ages  ;  others,  who,  instead  of  advan- 
cing, have  been  retrograding. 

The  impulse  given  by  the  rigors  of  glacial  times  acted 
beneficially  throughout  this  period.  The  rude  axes  and 
flints  were  retained,  but  improvements  wore  made  in  utiliz- 
ing tiic  bones  and  horns  of  animals.  Out  of  tlicse,  bodkins, 
fisii-liooks,  and  arrow-heads  were  made.  The  teeth  of  wild 
animals  Avere  perforated,  and,  along  with  corals  and  shells, 
were  used  for  ornaments.  The  caverns,  used  as  dwelling- 
places,  being  destitute  of  water,  this  necessary  of  life  was 
supplied  and  carried  thither  in  rude  vessels  made  of  clay  and 
dried  in  the  sun.  The  arrows,  flint  knives,  and  axes  were 
used  for  killing  and  skinning  the  animals,  splitting  the  bones 
contAinintj  the  marrow,  shaping  the  bone  iin]flements,  felling 


CONUITIOX    OF   MAX    IN    THE   INTER-GLACIAL.  77 

trees,  and  stripping  the  bark,  which  was  used  at  times  for 
clothing,  after  having  been  softened  by  beating.     He  com- 
menced the  art  of  engraving,  as  is  witnessed  by  a  sketch  of 
the  great  cave-bear  wrought  on  a  curious  stone  found  in  the 
cave  of  Massat  (Ariege),  the  bird's  head  formed  from  the  bone 
of  a  cave-bear,  at  Aurignac,  and  other  examples.     The  lower 
jaw-bones  of  the  cave-bear  and  cave-lion,  in  the  shape  of 
hoes,  used  for  digging  roots,  were  found  in  the  caves  of  Lherm 
and   in  Bouicheta.     He  made   hearth-stones,  and   on  them 
cooked  his  food.     That  he  paid  honors  to  the  dead,  and  shel- 
tered them  from  the  ravages  of  beasts  of  prey,  at  present, 
must  remain  an  open  question.     If  he  did,  it  might  seem  to 
imply  that  he  had  a  religious  nature.     But  when  it  is  consid- 
ered that  he  was  very  low  in  the  scale  of  existence,  it  may  bo 
inferred  that  this  was  done,  if  done  at  all,  to  propitiate  an 
evil  genius.     Or  it  may  be  a  faint  idea  of  a  ghost  state  and 
that  these   feasts  were   made  to   dissuade  the   ghost  from 
molesting  him.     That  they  had  a  conception  of  a  Supreme 
Euler,  or  a  number  of  gods  who  ruled  for  the  good  of  man, 
would  be  too  jjreposterous  to  believe. 

Professor  Denton  has  given  a  description  of  primeval 
time  which,  by  a  little  change,  would  represent  inter-glacial 
times :  "  The  seasons  are  fairly  estabhshed  ;  and  spring 
follows  winter,  and  fall  summer,  as  now ;  though  the  sum- 
mer is  longer  and  warmer  than  we  are  accustomed  to  see  in 
those  countries  at  the  present  time,  and  the  winters  colder. 
The  country  is  covered  with  dense  forests,  through  which 
ramble  mighty  elephants  in  herds,  with  immense  curved 
tusks,  coats  of  long,  shaggy  hair,  and  flowing  manes.  .  . 
Shuffling  along  comes  the  great  cave-bear  from  his  rocky  den 
—as  large  as  a  horse  :  fierce,  shaggy,  conscious  of  his  strength, 
he  fears  no  adversary.  Crouched  by  a  bubbling  spring  lies 
the  cave-tiger  {Felis  spelcea)  ;  and,  as  the  wild  cattle  come 
down  to  drink,  he  leaps  upon  the  back  of  one,  and  a  terrible 
combat  ensues.     It  is  as  large  as  an  elephant,  and  its  horns 


78  ANTIQUITY   OF  MAN. 

of  enormous  size ;  and  even  cave-tigers  could  not  always 
master  such  cattle  as  they. 

"  Are  these  the  liighcst  forms  of  life  that  the  country 
contains  ?  Wliat  being  is  that  sitting  on  yon  fallen  tree  ? 
His  long  arms  are  in  front  of  his  hairy  body,  and  his 
hands  between  liis  knees  ;  while  his  long  legs  are  dangling 
down.  His  complexion  is  darker  than  an  Indian's  ;  his 
beard  short,  and  like  the  hair  of  his  body  ;  the  unkempt  hair 
of  his  head  is  bushy  and  thick  ;  his  eyebrows  are  short  and 
crisp  ;  and  Avith  his  sloping  forehead  and  brutal  counte- 
nance, he  seems  like  the  caricature  of  a  man,  rather  than  an 
actual  human  being. 

''  Beneath  the  shade  of  a  spreading  chestnut  we  may  be- 
hold a  group — one  old  man.  .  .  and  women  and  children, 
lounging  and  lying  upon  the  ground.  How  dirty  !  What 
forbidding  countenances  ! — more  like  furies  than  women. 
One  young  man,  with  a  stone  axe,  is  separating  the  bark  from 
a  neighboring  tree.  Others,  agile  as  monkeys,  are  climbing 
the  trees,  and  passing  from  branch  to  branch,  as  they  gather 
the  wild  fruit  that  abounds  on  every  side.  Some  are  catching 
fish  in  the  shallows  of  the  river,  and  yell  with  triumph  as 
they  hold  their  captives  by  the  gills,  dragging  them  to  the 
shore."  * 

They  have  improved  their  language,  and  instead  of  the 
rude  signs  and  undistinguishable  sounds  of  the  glacial,  may 
now  be  heard  short,  but  occasional  sentences,  Avhich  were  the 
forerunners  of  the  polished  tongues  of  modern  Europe. 

•  "  Our  Planet,"  p.  260. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


REINDEER   EPOCH. 


TiiE  glaciers,  to  a  limited  extent,  have  again  advanced. 
The  gigantic  animals  of  the  past  age  have  either  disappeared 
or  are  fast  hecoming  exunct.  The  great  cave-bear,  cave-lion, 
cave-hyena,  mammoth,  and  woolly-haired  rhinoceros  have 
almost  become  extinct.  They  have  given  way  to  a  less  fierce 
and  less  gisfantic  fanna.  The  advance  of  the  glaciers  is 
announced  by  the  numerous  herds  of  reindeer  which  are 
overrunning  the  forests  of  Western  Europe,  and  extending  as 
far  south  as  the  Pyrenees.  In  the  forests  there  now  existed 
the  horse,  bison,  wild  bull  {Bos  primigciiius),  musk-ox,  elk, 
deer,  chamois,  ibex,  beaver,  hamster-rat,  lemming,  and  many 
others.  These  animals  were  capable  of  withstanding  and 
flourishing  in  a  rigorous  "climate.  When  the  glaciers  were 
again  broken  up  and  the  climate  became  warmer,  the  rein- 
deer, musk-ox,  elk,  chamois,  wild-goat,  hamster-rat,  and 
lemming  retired  to  the  high  northern  latitudes  in  close  prox- 
imity to  the  snow,  or  else  to  the  lofty  summits  of  great 
mountain-chains. 

The  evidences  of  the  antiquity  of  the  reindeer  epoch,  ana 
that  it  immediately  followed  the  inter-glacial,  are  numerous. 
The  vast  number  of  tlie  reindeer  bones  and  horns  attest  to  a 
distinct  epoch,  and  by  the  lemains  of  arctic  animals,  as  well  as 
the  traces  of  glaciers,  the  climate  must  have  been  unlike  that 
of  the  present  time.  The  remains  of  the  mammoth,  cave- 
bear,  and  cave-lion,  would  not  only  connect  this  period  with 
the  inter-glacial,  but  also  j)rove  that  a  few  stragglers  continued 
to  exist,  at  least  for  a  sliort  period,  after  the  reindeer  epoch 


80  ANTIQUITY   OF  MA3J. 

Iiad  begun.  That  this  epoch  was  earlier  than  the  Swiss  lake- 
villages,  or  Danish  shell  mounds,  may  be  shown  by  the  wea- 
pons or  implements  which  point  to  a  more  primitive  people, 
the  absence  of  the  remains  of  the  dog,  and,  also,  by  the 
absence  of  the  remains  ot  the  reindeer  in  the  shell-mounds. 

There  are  no  means,  yet  discovered,  by  which  it  can  be 
told  how  long  this  epoch  lasted.  It  lasted  a  sufficient  length 
ot  time  to  permit  the  reindeer  to  increase  greatly  its  species. 

Evidences  of  the  Existence  of  Man. — M.  Christy  and  M. 
Lartet  examined  in  conjunction  the  eaves  of  Central  and 
Southern  France.  Those  which  have  been  most  carefully 
examined  are  ten  in  number,  and  belong  to  the  Department 
of  Dordogne.  At  Perigord  there  seems  to  have  been  quite  a 
settlement,  judging  by  the  number  of  caves  and  stations,  the 
principal  ones  being  Les  Eyzies,  La  Madeleine,  Laugerie- 
Haute,  and  Laugerie-Basse. 

At  Les  Eyzies  there  were  found  a  flint  bodkin  and  a  bone 
needle  used  for  sewing,  a  barbed  arrow  made  of  reindeer 
horn  and  still  fixed  in  a  bone,  a  flint  whistle  made  from  the 
first  joint  of  the  foot  of  the  reindeer,  and  two  slabs  of  schist, 
on  both  of  which  were  scratched  animal  forms,  but  deficient 
iu  any  special  characteristic. 

At  La  Madeleine  there  were  found  a  geode  very  large  and 
very  thick,  which,  it  is  supposed,  was  used  for  a  cooking 
vessel,  as  one  side  of  it  had  been  subjected  to  fire  ;  an 
engraving  of  a  reindeer  on  the  horn  of  that  animal  ;  on 
another  horn  the  carved  outlines  of  two  fishes,  one  on  eithei 
side  ;  a  representation  of  an  ibex  on  the  palm  of  a  horn  ;  on 
another,  a  very  curious  group,  consisting  of  an  eel,  a  human 
figure,  and  two  horses'  heads.  A  slab  of  ivory,  broken  into 
?iSQ  pieces,  had  an  outline  sketch  of  the  mammoth  (Fig.  1.3). 
This  was  so  accurately  drawn  that  the  small  eye,  curved 
tusks,  huge  trunk,  and  the  abundant  mane,  could  readily  be 
distinguished.  There  Avas  also  found,  on  an  arrow-head,  the 
figure  of  a  tadpole. 

There  were  Avorksiiops  at  Laugcrie-Haute  and  Laugerie- 


IIEIXDEKR    El'OClJ, 


81 


Basse,  where  weapons  and  utensils  were  manufactured ;  and 
they  are  noted  for  the  abundance  of  instruments  made  of 
reindeer  horn.  Among  tlie  works  of  art  found  at  the  Latter 
station  may  he  mentioned,  the  stiletto,  needle,  spoon  made  in 
the  shape  of  rods  tapering  off  at  one  end  and  hollow  in  the 
middle,  staff  of  authority,  whistle,  and  harpoon,  all  from  the 
horn  of  the  reindeer.  On  the  head  of  a  staff  of  authority  is 
carved  a  mammoth's  head  ;  tliere  is  a  rejiresentation  of  the 
hind-quarters  of  some  herbivorous  animal,  sketched  out  with 
a  bold  and  practiced  touch  ;  an  animal's  head,  with  ears  laid 
back,  and  of  considerable  length,  is  carved  on  a  round  shaft 
of  reindeer  horn.     It  cannot  be  determined  for  what  purpose 


Fig.   13. 


Sketch  op  a  Mammotu,  giiavex  on  a  Slab  op  Ivory 
FKOM  La  Madeleine. 

this  shaft  was  intended,  but  as  the  other  end  was  pointed, 
and  provided  with  a  lateral  hook,  it  may  have  been  the 
harpoon  of  some  chief.  On  a  slab  of  slate  was  drawn,  in  out- 
line, a  reindeer  fight.  On  a  fragment  of  a  spear-head  there  is 
a  series  of  human  hands,  provided  with  four  fingers  only, 
and  represented  in  demi-relief.  The  delineations  of  fish  are 
principally  on  wands  of  authority — on  one  of  which  is  a  series 
following  one  another. 

The  cave  and  rock  shelters  of  Bruniquel  (Tarn-et-Garonne) 

have  been  carefully  examined  by  competent  explorers.     These 

relics  are  so  numerous  that  M.  de  Lastic,  the  proprietor  of 

the  cavern,  sold  to  the  agent  of  the  British  Museum  fifteeD 

4* 


82  ANTIQUITY   OF   MAN. 

hundred  specimens,  of  every  description,  which  had  been 
found  on  his  property.  In  the  cave  there  were  found, 
engraved  on  a  bone,  a  perfectly  recognizable  horse's  head  and 
the  head  of  a  reindeer,  and  daggers  made  of  ivory  and  bone, 
on  which  were  representations  of  the  above-mentioned 
animals.  The  engravings  arc  mostly  on  the  horn  of  the  rein- 
deer. The  cave  has  also  furnished  two  almost  perfect 
human  skulls,  and  two  half-jaw  bones  which  resemble  the 
Moulin-Quignon. 

The  rock- shelters  are  overhanging  rocks,  under  the  projec- 
tions of  which  man  found  a  shelter  and  built  his  rude 
dwellings  of  boughs  and  sticks.  In  these  shelters  have  been 
found  lire-hearths,  fish-hooks  made  of  splinters  of  bone, 
saws  made  of  flint,  a  com^olete  sketch  of  the  mammoth 
engraved  on  reindeer  horn,  the  hilt  of  a  dagger  carved  in  the 
shajoe  of  a  reindeer,  the  cave-lion,  engraved  with  great  clear- 
ness, on  a  fragment  of  a  staff  of  authority,  and  two  daggers 
made  of  ivory. 

In  the  excavations  which  were  made  in  the  rock-shelters, 
was  found  a  quantity  of  human  bones,  including  two  skulls 
— one  of  an  old  man,  the  other  that  of  an  adult. 

The  cave  of  Gourdan  (Haute-Garonne)  contained  the 
largest  collection  of  implements  of  bone  and  horn  ever  dis- 
covered. The  stones  and  reindeer  horns  are  carved  with 
great  care,  and  indicate  a  high  degree  of  artistic  taste.  There 
are  sketches  made  of  the  reindeer,  stag,  chamois,  goat,  bison, 
horse,  wolf,  boar,  monkey,  badger,  antelope,  fishes,  and 
birds,  and  also  the  rei^resentations  of  some  plants.  In  the 
lowest  layer  of  the  soil  the  most  perfect  works  occur,  and 
they  grow  less  as  the  surface  is  approached.  Several  of  those 
implements  called  "batons  of  command"  occurred,  orua- 
mented  with  animals'  heads.  On  the  rib  of  a,  horse  was 
carved  an  antelope,  and  on  the  bone  of  a  bird  various 
figures — plants,  reindeer,  and  a  fish.  This  cave  was  made 
the  subject  of  a  report  by  M.  Piette  before  the  Paris  Anthrop- 
ological Society. 


Kfci,e'"*^" 


REINDEER   EPOCH.  85 

The  fossil  man  of  Mentone,  found  in  a  grotto  of  Montone, 
a  village  near  Nice,  for  some  time  past  has  produced  much 
comment  among  scientists.  The  skeleton  was  discovered  in 
undisturbed  earth  ;  at  a  depth  of  twenty-one  feet.  The  cause 
of  tlie  discussion  is  that  the  skeleton  is  .accompanied  by  a 
multiplicity  of  bone-tools,  needles,  chisels,  a  baton  of  com- 
mand, a  necklace,  various  species  of  the  deer,  indicating  the 
reindeer  epoch,  but  surrounded  also  by  the  remains  of  the 
cave-bear,  cave-hyena,  and  woolly-haired  rhinoceros.  Dr. 
Garrigou  arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  this  cave  was  first 
inhabited  by  men  of  the  preceding  epoch,  or  inter-glacial, 
and  during  the  reindeer  epoch  was  used  as  a  place  of  burial.* 
The  attitude  of  the  skeleton  was  that  of  repose  (see  Fig.  14). 
It  was  stained  by  oxide  of  iron.  The  tibiae,  or  shin-bones, 
present  a  noticeable  feature  by  being  more  flattened  than  in 
the  European  of  the  present  time. 

In  the  same  neighborhood  there  have  more  recently  been 
discovered,  in  different  caves,  four  other  human  skeletons. 
They  were  all  stained  with  oxide  of  iron,  and  two  of  them 
surrounded  with  pierced  sea-shells,  teeth  of  the  stag,  consti- 
tuting the  remains  of  necklaces  and  bracelets.  With  one 
skeleton,  which  belonged  to  a  large  individual,  were  dis- 
covered implements  of  stone  and  bone,  tooth  of  a  cave-bear, 
bones  of  other  animals,  and  shells  of  edible  marine  mollusks. 
The  otlier  two  skeletons  were  those  of  children,  and  not 
accompanied  by  either  implements  or  ornaments. 

The  other  bone  caves  of  France,  Avliich  have  afforded 
much  valuable  information,  and  belonging  to  this  epoch,  are  : 
La  Gorge  d'Enfcr,  Liveyre,  Pey  de  I'Aze,  Combe-Granal,  Le 
Moustier  and  Badegoule  (Dordogne),  cave  of  Bize  (Aude), 
cave  of  La  Vache  (Aricge),  cave  of  Savigne  (Vienne),  grottos 
of  La  Balme  and  Bethenas,  in  Dauphine,  tlie  settlement  of 
Solutre,  the  cave  of  Lourdes  (Ilautes- Pyrenees),  and  the  cave 
of  Espalungue  (Basses-Pyrenees) — the  last  two  date  back  to 
the  most  ancient  period  of  the  reindeer  epoch. 

*  "  Science  Record."  1874,  d.  499. 


86  ANTIQUITY    or    MAN. 

The  principal  objects  found  in  these  caves  and  the  rock- 
ehelters  are  worked  Hakes,  scrapers,  cores,  awls,  lance-lieads, 
cutters,  hammers,  and  mortar-stones.  These  works,  though 
unpolislicd,  are  but  little  ruder  than  those  of  the  Esquimaux 
or  the  North  American  Indian. 

Belgian  Caverns.— \Ji\^Qi'  the  auspices  of  the  Belgian 
government  M.  Edward  Dupont  examined  more  than  twenty 
caves  on  the  banks  of  the  Lesse,  in  the  province  of  Xamur. 
Among  these  were  four,  in  which  occurred  numerous  traces 
of  the  reindeer-man,  namely,  Trou  du  Frontal,  Trou  Rosette, 
Trou  des  Nutons,  and  Trou  de  Chaleux. 

The  cavern  Trou  de  Frontal  was  a  place  of  burial,  and 
similar  to  the  cave  of  Aurignac.  The  mouth  of  the  cave  Avas 
closed  by  a  slab  of  sandstone,  and  within  were  the  remains  of 
fourteen  human  beings  belonging  to  persons  of  various  ages, 
and  some  of  tliem  to  infants  scarcely  a  year  old.  In  front  of 
the  cave  was  an  esplanade,  where  were  celebrated  the  funeral 
feasts,  and  which  was  marked  by  hearth-stone,  traces  of  fire, 
flint-knives,  bones  of  animals,  shells,  etc.  The  human  bones 
were  intermixed  with  a  considerable  number  of  the  bones  of 
the  reindeer  and  other  animals,  as  well  as  the  different  kinds 
of  implements.  Among  the  remains  were  two  perfect  human 
skulls,  in  a  good  state  of  preservation.  The  bones  were  dis- 
covered in  a  state  of  great  confusion,  which  M.  Dupont 
thinks  was  caused  by  the  disturbance  of  water.  Sir  John 
Lubbock  regards  the  disturbance  of  the  bones  as  due  to  foxes 
and  badgers,* 

Immediately  above  this  cave  is  the  Trou  Rosette,  in  which 
the  bones  of  three  persons  were  found,  mingled  with  those  of 
tlie  reindeer  and  beaver.  It  also  contained  fragments  of  a 
blackish  kind  of  pottery,  which  were  hollowed  out  in  rough 
grooves  and  hardened  by  fire.  Dupont  is  of  opinion  that  the 
three  men  were  crushed  to  death  by  masses  of  rock  at  tho 
time  of  the  inundation  of  the  valley  of  the  Lesse. 

In  the  Trou  des  Nutons,  situated  one  hundred  and  sixty- 

♦  «'  Pre-Hi.''toric  Times,"  p.  315. 


REINDEER   EPOCH.  87 

four  feet  above  tlie  Lesse,  were  found  a  great  many  bones  of 
the  reindeer,  wild  bull,  and  many  other  species.  In  the  cave, 
indiscriminately  mixed  up  with  these  bones,  were  one  hundred 
and  fifty  worked  reindeer  horns,  knuckle-bones  of  the  goat, 
polished  on  both  sides,  a  whistle  made  from  tlie  tibia  of  a 
goat,  fragments  of  very  coarse  pottery,  and  fire-hearths. 

The  cave  of  Chaleux  was  buried  by  a  mass  of  rubbish 
caused  by  the  falling  in  of  the  roof,  consequently  preserving 
all  its  implements.  There  were  found  the  split  bones  of 
mammals  and  the  bones  of  birds  and  fishes.  There  was  an 
immense  number  of  objects,  chiefly  manufactured  from  rein- 

FlG.   lo. 


Earthen  Vase,  found  ix  niii  Cave  of  Furfooz,  Belgium. 

deer  horn,  such  as  needles,  arrow-heads,  daggers,  and  hooks. 
Besides  these,  there  were  ornaments  made  of  shells,  pieces  of 
slate  with  engraved  figure,  mathematical  lines,  remains  of 
very  coarse  pottery,  hearth-stones,  ashes,  charcoal,  and  last 
but  not  least,  thirty  thousand  worked  flints  mingled  with  the 
broken  bones.  In  the  hearth,  placed  in  the  centre  of  the 
cave,  was  discovered  a  stone,  with  certain  but  unintelligible 
signs  engraved  upon  it.  M.  Dupont  also  found  about  twenty 
pounds  of  t]\e  bones  of  the  water-rat,  either  scorchel  or 
roasted. 


88  ANTIQUITY    OF   MAN. 

In  a  cave  at  Furfooz,  Dupout  found  an  urn,  or  specimen 
of  rough  pottery  (Fig.  15)  intermingled  with  human  bones. 
It  was  partly  broken  ;  by  the  care  of  M.  Hauzeur  it  has  been 
put  together  again. 

France  and  Belgium  are  not  alone  in  their  monuments  of 
the  reindeer  epoch,  for  settlements  of  this  epoch  have  been 
discovered  in  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Poland. 

In  the  cave  of  Thayngeu,  near  Schaffhauscn,  Switzer- 
land, have  been  discovered  a  few  remains  of  the  mammoth, 
rhinoceros,  and  cave-lion  ;  the  remains  of  two  hundred  and 
fifty  reindeer,  four  hundred  and  thirty  Alpine  hares  ;  also 
the  remains  of  the  brown  bear,  stag,  elk,  auroch,  glutton, 
wolf,  and  several  kinds  of  fox.  The  large  bones  invariably 
appeared  in  fragments,  and  the  pebbles  used  for  breaking 
them  were  found  in  the  refuse.  Among  birds,  the  bones  of 
the  swan,  grouse,  and  duck  predominate.  The  implements 
consisted  chiefly  of  needles,  piercers,  and  arrow-heads  made  of 
tlic  antlers  of  the  reindeer.  The  art  of  engraving  and 
carving  was  carried  to  quite  a  degree  of  perfection.  The 
most  notable  of  these  objects  is  the  delineation  of  a  reindeer 
in  the  act  of  browsing,  drawn  on  a  joiece  of  the  horn  of  that 
animal. 

Not  far  from  Cracow  (Poland),  a  cavern  has  been  recently 
discovered  and  examined  by  Count  Zawisza.  In  the  upper 
part  of  the  floor  (four  feet  in  depth),  consisting  of  vegetable 
earth,  mould,  and  debris,  occurred  ashes,  flint  implements, 
and  the  split  bones  of  the  cave-bear,  reindeer,  horse,  elk,  and 
other  animals.  Beneath  this  layer  appeared  the  broken  bones 
of  the  mammoth,  an  ornament  of  ivory,  and  the  perforated 
teeth  of  the  cave-bear,  stag,  elk,  wolf,  and  fox.  Two 
thousand  flint  implements  were  obtained ;  and  from  the 
frequent  occurrence  of  flint  the  cave  was  used  by  the  troglo- 
dytes, or  cave-men,  as  a  dwelling  ;  and  by  the  remains  of  the 
fauna,  it  must  have  been  occupied  during  the  inter-glacial, 
and  at  the  beginning  of  the  reindeer  epoch. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

MAN  OF  THE  EEIXDEER  EPOCH. 

The  lieindeer  Epoch,  ajoproaching  nearer  the  present  age 
than  those  already  enumerated,  presents  man  under  a  more 
favorable  aspect,  and  affords  a  better  view  of  his  traits  of 
character  and  manner  of  living.  Not  only  the  sturdy  cli- 
mate spurs  him  to  action,  but  a  higher  type  is  supplanting 
the  original  savages.  The  brachycephalic,  or  round-headed, 
has  penetrated  the  recesses  of  that  wild  country  and  brought 
with  him  the  art  of  making  more  perfect  implements.  This 
new  type  was  of  short  stature,  having  small  hands  and  feet. 
If  Asia  be  the  home  of  man,  then  from  that  country, 
advanced  in  civilization,  came  the  vanguard  who  were 
destined  to  supplant  their  predecessors,  tame  the  wild  beasts, 
and  conquer  the  forests.  Representatives  of  this  type  arc 
found  in  the  Lapps  and  Fins.  Between  the  two  existing 
races — dolichocephalic  and  brachycephalic — there  may  have 
been  a  long  and  bitter  strife.  The  former  was  large,  stout, 
fearless,  and  cruel  ;  the  latter,  small,  hardy,  and  more  intel- 
ligent. It  was  a  conflict  between  brute  force  and  intelli- 
gence. The  more  perfect  weapons  must  have  told  fearfully 
against  the  rude  axes  and  arrows  of  the  dolichocephalic.  It 
could  not  have  been  a  war  of  extermination,  for  finally  an 
intermixture  took  place,  jDroducing  a  medium,  as  may  be 
judged  from  the  exhumed  skulls. 

Dwellings. — As  in  the  past  ages,  man  continued  to  dwell, 
for  the  most  j^art,  in  caves.  If  the  cave  was  small,  he  oc- 
cupied every  portion ;  but  if  large,  only  that  part  near  the 
opening  was  used.     In  the  centre  of  this  dwelling  he  made  a 


90  ANTIQUITY   OF  MAN. 

hearth,  out  of  stones  sunk  in  the  floor,  and  Avith  the  lire 
placed  npon  it,  he  cooked  his  meals  and  warmed  his  body. 
This  mode  of  life  did  not  always  satisfy  him,  for  he  ventured 
out,  and  under  the  projection  of  an  overhanging  rock  he  built 
him  a  booth,  or  rude  hut,  out  of  boughs,  and  the  poles  of 
fallen  timber.  These  dwellings,  whether  in  caves  or  under 
the  rocks,  were  near  some  stream. 

Clothmg. — The  climate  being  cold,  he  probably  ceased  to 
use  the  inner  bark  of  trees,  and  depended  solely  on  the  skins 
of  animals.  The  skins  were  jn-epared  by  the  flint  scrapers, 
and  then  rendered  supple  by  rubbing  into  them  the  brains 
and  the  marrow  extracted  from  the  skulls  and  long  bones  of 
the  reindeer.  These  garments  may  have  been  artistically 
shaped,  for  they  understood  the  art  of  sewing.  With  the 
bodkin  they  pierced  the  skin,  and  witli  the  needle,  end  was 
held  to  end  and  side  to  side,  and  the  same  made  permanent 
by  the  sinew  of  some  animal. 

Food. — These  people  were  essentially  hunters,  and  lived 
principally  upon  the  reindeer,  which  they  attacked  with  their 
spears  and  arrows.  The  horse,  elk,  ox,  ibex,  and  the 
chamois,  formed  a  considerable  part  of  their  food.  The  meat 
was  cooked  on  the  rough  hearths,  and  the  skull  and  the  long 
bones  were  split  open  in  order  to  extract  the  brains  and 
marrow,  which  formed  a  delicious  dish.  To  this  they  also 
added  fish  and,  occasionally,  certain  birds,  such  as  the  heath- 
cock,  swan,  and  owl.  The  chase  did  not  always  afford  them 
sufficient  food,  and  at  times  tliey  were  forced  to  subsist  on 
the  water-rat. 

Enough  evidence  has  been  produced  to  show  that  these 
people  were  cannibals.  Human  finger-Joints  were  discovered 
among  tlie  remains  of  cooking  at  Solutre  in  Maconnais.  M. 
Issel  found,  at  a  point  on  the  road  from  Genoa  to  Nice,  some 
human  bones  which  had  been  calcined,  and  were  of  a  Avhitish 
color,  light,  and  friable.  The  incrustations  on  tlieir  surface 
still  contained  small  fragments  of  carbon,  and  some  of  them 
showed  notches  made  by  some  sharp  instrument.     In  one  of 


MAN"   OF  TUE   llEIXDEER   EPOCU.  91 

the  gi-ottos  of  Northern  Italy  M.  Costa  de  Beauregard  found 
the  small  shin-bone  of  a  child,  which  had  been  carefully 
emptied  and  cleansed.  Professor  Owen  thinks  he  can  recog- 
nize the  trace  of  human  teeth  on  some  human  skulls  and 
children's  bones  found  in  Scotland,  and  promiscuously  mixed 
with  sculptured  flints  and  the  remains  of  pottery. 

Tlie  Arts. — Man  had  not  yet  discovered  the  value  of 
metal,  but  formed  his  instruments  out  of  flint,  bone,  and  the 
horn  of  the  reindeer.  The  hatchet  was  but  little  used,  and 
the  principal  weapons  were  the  flint-knife,  arrow-heads,  and 
occasionally  the  lower  Jaw-bone  of  the  cave-bear,  with  its 
pointed  canine  tooth.  The  articles  of  domestic  use  were 
rough  pottery,  knives,  scrapers,  saws,  bodkins,  needles,  and 
other  wrought  implements.  He  had  articles  for  ornamenting 
his  person  and  pleasing  his  fancy,  such  as  shells  for  beads, 
and  the  wliistle  for  delighting  his  ear.  The  art  of  engraving 
was  practised  to  a  great  extent,  and  so  admirably  did  he 
execute  his  designs  that,  after  the.  lapse  of  thousands  of  years, 
the  figures  are  easily  recognized.' 

The  stalf  of  authority  Avould  imply  that  there  were 
certain  individuals  who  were  recognized  as  chiefs  or  leaders. 
Some  system  must  have  prevailed,  for  without  it  the  manu- 
factories at  Laugerie-Basse  and  Laugerie-IIaute  could  not 
have  been  carried  on.  In  the  first  of  these  workshops  the 
fabrications  wei-e  almost  wholly  spear-heads,  and  in  the  second 
reindeer  horn  was  used  for  the  weapons  and  implements. 

Traffic. — Commerce  was  begun.  The  inhabitants  of  Bel- 
gium sought  their  flints  in  that  part  of  France  now  called 
Champagne.  From  the  same  locality  they  also  brought  back 
fossil  shells,  which  were  strung  together  and  used  for  neck- 
laces. There  can  be  no  doubt  of  this,  as  already  fifty-four  of 
these  shells  have  been  found  at  Chaleux,  and  they  are  not 
found  naturally  anywhere  else  tlian  in  Champagne. 

Burial. — As  in  the  previous  epoch,  the  dead  were  con- 
Bigned  to  the  same  kind  of  caves  as  were  used  for  habitations, 
and  the  entombment  was  celebrated  by  the   funeral-feast. 


92  ANTIQUITY    Ol-    MAN. 

These  banquets  afford  no  evidence  of  worsliip.  Some  liavo 
thouglit  tliey  »ot  only  saw  signs  of  worship  in  the  banquets, 
but  also  in  some  of  the  carvings.  No  idols  have  been  found. 
That  they  sliould  have  no  notion  of  a  future  state  is  not 
surprising,  for  Sir  J.  Litbbock  has  shown  that  there  aro 
tribes  at  the  present  time  without  this  belief.* 

M.  Edward  Dupont,  in  his  report  to  the  Belgian  minister 
of  the  Interior,  on  the  excavations  carried  on  in  the  caves,  has 
concisely  but;  eloquently  given  a  synopsis  of  man  of  the 
reindeer  epoch,  in  the  following  language  : 

*'  The  data  obtained  from  the  fossils  of  Chaleux,  together 
with  those  which  have  been  met  with  in  the  caves  of  Furfooz, 
present  us  with  a  striking  picture  of  tlie  primitive  ages  of 
mankind  in  Belgium.  These  ancient  tribes,  and  all  their 
customs,  after  having  been  buried  in  oblivion  for  thousands 
and  thousands  of  years,  arc  again  vividly  brought  before  our 
eyes  ;  and,  .  .  .  antiquity  lives  again  in  the  relics  of  its 
former  existence. 

"  "We  may  almost  fancy  that  we  can  see  them  in  their  dark 
and  subterranean  retreats,  crouching  round  their  hearths, 
and  skilfully  and  patiently  chipping  out  their  flint  instru- 
ments and  shaping  their  reindeer-horn  tools,  in  the  midst  of  all 
the  pestilential  emanations  arising  from  the  various  animal  re- 
mains which  tlieir  carelessness  has  allowed  to  remain  in  their 
dwellings.  Skins  of  wild  beasts  are  stripped  of  their  hair, 
and,  by  the  aid  of  flint  needles,  are  converted  into  garments. 
In  our  mind's  eye,  we  may  see  them  engaged  in  the  chase, 
and  hunting  Avild  animals — their  only  weapons  being  darts 
and  spears,  the  fatal  points  of  which  are  formed  of  nothing 
but  a  splinter  of  flint.  Again,  we  are  present  at  their  feasts, 
in  which,  during  the  period  when  their  hunting  has  been 
fortunate,  a  horse,  a  bear,  or  a  reindeer,  becomes  the  more 
noble  substitute  for  the  tainted  flesh  of  the  rat,  their  sole 
resource  in  the  time  of  famine. 

**Now,  we  see  them  trafficking  with  the  tribes  inhabiting 

•  "  Origin  of  Civilization,"  p.  121. 


MAX    OF  THE    KEINDEER   EPOCH.  93 

the  region  now  called  France,  and  procuring  the  jet  and  fossil 
shells  with  which  they  love  to  adorn  themselves,  and  the  flint 
which  is  to  them  so  precious  a  material.  On  one  side  they 
are  picking  up  the  fluor  spar,  the  color  of  which  is  pleasing 
to  their  eyes  ;  on  the  other,  they  are  digging  out  the  great 
slabs  of  sandstone  which  are  to  be  placed  as  hearth-stones 
round  their  fire. 

"But,  alas  !  inauspicious  days  arrive."  The  roof  of  their 
principal  cave  falls  in,  burying  their  weapons  and  utensils, 
and  forcing  thcni  "  to  fly  and  take  up  their  abode  in  another 
spot.  The  ravages  of  death  break  in  upon  them.  .  .  . 
They  bear  the  cori^se  into  its  cavernous  sepulchre  ;  some 
weapons,  an  amulet,  and  perhaps  an  urn,  form  the  whole  of 
the  funeral  furniture.  A  slab  of  stone  prevents  the  inroad  of 
Avild  beasts.  Then  begins  the  funeral  banquet,  celebrated 
close  by  the  abode  of  the  dead  ;  a  fire  is  lighted,  great  ani- 
mals are  cut  uji,  and  portions  of  their  smoking  flesh  are 
distributed  to  each.  How  strange  the  ceremonies  that  must 
then  have  taken  place  !  ceremonies  like  those  told  us  of  the 
savages  of  the  Indian  and  African  solitudes.  Imagination 
may  easily  depict  the  songs,  the  dances,  and  the  invocations, 
hut  science  is  powerless  to  call  them  into  life.     .     .     . 

'*But  the  end  of  this  primitive  age  is  at  last  come. 
Torrents  of  water  break  in  upon  the  country.  Its  in- 
habitants, driven  from  their  abodes,  in  vain  take  refuge  on 
the  lofty  mountain  summits.  Death  at  last  overtakes  them, 
and  a  dark  cavern  is  the  tomb  of  the  wretched  beings,  who, 
at  Furfooz,  were  witnesses  of  this  immense  catastrophe."  * 

•  Figuier's  "  Primitive  Man,"  p.  116. 


CHAPTER  X. 

KEOLITHIC    EPOCH. 

The  Neolithic,  or  Ei:>ocli  of  Tamed  Animals,  is  charac- 
terized by  stone  implements,  polished  or  made  smooth  by  a 
process  of  grinding-  und  cutting,  the  greater  development 
attained  in  tlie  art  of  pottery,  and  by  tlie  presence  of  the 
bones  of  the  domesticated  animals.  Tliis  age,  in  which  no 
remains  of  the  reindeer  occur,  immediately  follows  the  rein- 
deer epoch,  and  to  it  are  referred  in  general  all  discoveries 
made  in  the  so  called  alluvial  soil,  the  most  ancient  remains 
of  the  so  called  Celts,  the  shell-heaps  of  Denmark,  the 
tumuli  or  grave-mounds,  the  dolmens,  the  earlier  Swiss 
pile-buildings,  the  Irish  lake-dwellings,  and  some  of  the  caves 
of  France. 

Caverns. — The  caves  belonging  to  this  period,  and  ex- 
plored by  MM.  Garrigou  and  Filhol,  are  those  of  the 
Pyrenees  and  the  caves  of  Pradiers,  Bedeilhac,  Labart,  Niaux, 
Ussat,  and  Fontanel.  Some  of  these  caverns  have  been  used 
in  earlier  ages,  as  is  shown  by  the  remains  of  extinct  mam- 
mals. The  upper  crust  of  the  floors  of  the  caves  belong  to 
this  period,  and  in  them  are  found  the  bones  of  tlie  ox,  stag, 
sheep,  goat,  antelope,  chamois,  wild  boar,  wolf,  dog,  fox, 
badger,  hare,  and  horse,  intermingled  with  the  remains  of 
hearths,  also  piercers,  spear-heads,  and  arrow-heads,  made  of 
bone  ;  hatchets,  knives,  scrapers  made  of  flints,  and  various 
other  substances,  such  as  silicious  schist,  quartzite,  leptinito, 
and  serpentine  stone.  These  implements  were  carefully 
wrought,  and  mostly  polished. 

The  cave  of  Saint  Jean  d'Alcas  (Ave3n-on),  explored  at 


NEOLITUIC   EPOCH.  95 

dilferent  times  by  M.  Cazalis  de  Fondace,  was  used  as  a 
place  of  sepulture.  It  was  first  examined  about  twenty-five 
years  ago,  and  at  that  time  five  human  skulls,  in  a  good  state 
of  preservation,  were  found,  but  have  been  lost,  as  their  im- 
portance was  not  then  known.  Intermingled  with  these 
bones  were  flint,  jade,  and  serpentine  implements,  carved 
bones,  remains  of  rough  pottery,  stone  amulets,  and  the  shells 
of  shell-fish,  but  no  remains  of  funeral  banquets.  At  tlio 
mouth  of  the  cave  were  two  large  flag-stones  l}'ing  across  one 
another.  The  most  recent  discoveries  in  the  cave  have 
furnished  metallic  substances,  which  would  place  it,  as  a 
habitation,  to  the  last  of  the  neolithic. 

Danish  Kjohhen-Moddings,  or  Shell-Mounds,  or  Jcitchen- 
refuse  heaps. — The  refuse  heaps  of  Denmark  were  carefully 
examined  by  Professors  Steenstrup,  the  naturalist,  Forcham- 
mer,  a  geologist,  and  Worsaae,  the  arclijfiologist,  commis- 
sioned by  the  Danish  government,  their  reports  being 
presented  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Copenhagen. 

They  are  found  chiefly  on  the  north  coast  of  Denmark, 
and  consist  of  the  shells  of  edible  molliisks,  such  as  the  oyster, 
cockle,  mussel,  and  periwinkle.  These  deposits  are  from 
three  to  t&n  feet  in  thickness,  from  one  hundred  to  two 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  width,  and  sometimes  as  much  as 
one  thousand  feet  in  length.  In  them  are  found  weapons 
and  other  instruments  of  stone,  horn,  and  bone ;  fragments 
of  rough  ^lottery,  stone-wedges,  knives,  etc.,  in  great  abun- 
dance, accompanied  with  charcoal  and  ashes  ;  no  traces  of 
coin,  bronze,  or  iron,  or  domestic  animals,  except  the  dog. 
The  bones  of  animals  are  very  numerous,  but  no  human 
bones  have  ever  been  discovered.  Professor  Steenstrup 
estimates  that  ninety-seven  per  cent,  of  the  bones  belong  to 
the  stag,  the  roe-deer,  and  the  wild  boar.  The  other  remains 
are  those  of  the  urus  {Bos  j^rimigenius),  dog,  fox,  wolf,  mar- 
ten, wild-cat,  hedgehog,  bear  ( Ursus  arctos)^  and  the  mouse, 
and  the  bones  of  birds  and  fishes.  The  auroch,  musk  ox, 
domestic  ox,  elk,  hare,  sheej),  and  domestic  hog  are  absent. 


96  ANTIQUITY    OF    MAN. 

The  mollnsca  of  these  slioll-inomids  arc  of  a  size  which 
arc  never  obtained  by  the  representatives  of  the  same  species 
now  living  on  the  Baltic.  They  are  not  more  than  one-half 
or  even  one-third  the  size.  At  the  time  of  the  formation  of 
these  mounds,  t)\o  Baltic  was  a  true  sea,  or  an  arm  of  the 
ocean,  and  these  mollusks  were  taken  from  it.  Now  the 
Baltic  has  not  the  character  of  a  true  sea,  but  is  merely 
brackish,  and  the  oyster  does  not  occur  in  the  Baltic  except 
at  its  entrance  into  the  ocean. 

These  deposits  have  been  found  several  miles  inland, 
which  would  indicate  that  the  sea  had  once  covered  the 
intervening  space.  On  the  western  coast  they  have  not  been 
foiTud,  in  consequence  of  their  having  possibly  been  swept 
away  by  the  encroachments  of  the  sea.  They  are  also  found 
on  the  adjacent  islands. 

These  mounds  are  not  peculiar  alone  to  Denmark  ;  for 
they  are  found  in  England,  Scotland,  France,  and  America. 

Danish  Peat  Bogs. — The  peat  bogs  of  Denmark,  so  faith- 
fully investigated  by  Professor  Steenstrup,  mark  three  periods 
of  deposition.  The  most  ancient  is  called  the  Scotch- Fir ; 
the  second,  immediately  above,  the  Oah,  and  the  uppermost, 
the  Beech.  The  peat  is  from  ten  to  forty  feet  in  thickness, 
and  to  form  a  layer  from  ten  to  twenty  feet  thick  would 
require,  according  to  Steenstrup,  at  least  four  thousand  years, 
and  perhaps  even  from  three  to  four  times  that  period.* 
These  three  epochs  denote  three  periods  of  time.  The  low- 
est belongs  to  the  neolithic,  the  middle  to  the  bronze,  and 
the  last  to  the  iron  epoch.  In  the  lowest,  or  Fir  i)eriod, 
have  been  found  worked  flints  and  bones.  Iluman  bones 
have  been  found,  which  correspond  with  the  bones  t;)Ven 
from  the  tumuli  of  this  epoch. 

llie  Lake-Divellimjs  of  Sivitzerlaml. — Dr.  Ferdinand 
Keller  and  his  associates  have  made  known  to  the  world  the 
wonderful  remains  of  villages  situated  in  the  lakes  of  Switzer- 
land and  other  countries.     The  villages  of  Switzerland  do  not 

*  Buclmer,  p.  248. 


NEOi.rniK;  ];i'Ocii.         •  97 

all  belong  to  the  siiinc  period,  and  they  represent  the  neo- 
lithic, bronze,  and  iron  epochs  ;  but  there  was  no  hard  line 
of  demarcation  between  these  three  periods.  These  habita- 
tions are  so  numerous  tliat  more  than  two  hundred  settle- 
ments have  been  discovered  in  Switzerland  alone.  Among 
the  lakes  furnishing  these  remains  may  be  counted  the  Lake 
of  Neuchatel  (forty-six  settlements)  ;  Lake  Constance  (thirty- 
two  settlements)  ;  Lake  of  Geneva  (twenty-four  settlements) ; 
Lake  of  Bienne  (twenty-one  settlements) ;  Lake  of  Morat 
(sixteen  settlements)  ;  Lake  of  Zurich  (three  settlements)  ; 
Lake  of  Pfaeffikon  (six  settlements)  ;  Lake  of  Sempach  (six 
settlements) ;  Lake  of  Moossecdorf  (two  settlements)  ;  Lake 
of  Inkwyl  (one  settlement)  ;  Lake  of  Nussbaumen  (one  set- 
tlement) ;  Lake  Grciffcnsco  (one  settlement) ;  Lake  of  Zug 
(six  settlements)  ;  Lake  of  Baldegg  (five  settlements),  and 
others. 

The  habitations  belonging  to  the  neolithic  are  Lake  Con- 
stance thirty,  Neuchatel  twelve,  Geneva  two  settlements  ;  one 
each  at  Morat,  Bienne,  Zurick,  Pffeffikon,  Inkwyl,  Moossee- 
dorf,  Nussbaumen,  the  settlement  of  Concise,  the  bridge 
Thiele,  the  peat-bog  of  Wauwy],  and  others. 

These  dwellings  were  built  near  the  shore,  on  piles  of 
various  kinds  of  wood,  sharpened  by  tools  and  fire,  and 
driven  into  the  mud  at  the  shallow  bottom  of  the  lake.  In 
some  of  the  settlements  tlie  piles  Avere  fastened  by  heaping 
stones  around  them.  The  piles  were  sometimes  placed 
together,  at  others  apart.  The  heads  Avere  brought  to  a  level 
and  then  the  platform  beams  were  fastened  upon  them. 
This  basis  served  for  the  foundation  of  the  rude  rectangular 
liuts  they  erected.  These  piles  are  not  now  seen  above  the 
water,  yet  they  are  visible  above  the  bottom  of  the  lake. 
The  iiumber  of  piles  in  some  of  these  settlements  is  as  high 
as  one  hundred  thousand,  and  the  area  occupied,  not  less  thau 
seventy  thousand  square  yards.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
the  population  of  the  Lake-villages  during  the  neolithic  was 
over  thirty  thousand. 


98  ANTIQUITY    OF    MAN. 

The  object  of  these  dwellings  was  to  protect  the  inhabi- 
tants from  wild  animals,  the  attacks  of  enemies,  and  for  the 
ready  obtaining  of  food  by  fishing.  They  were  not  only 
occupied  by  the  inhabitants,  but  also  by  their  herds  and  the 
stores  of  fodder,  * 

Robenhnusen. — It  is  not  necessary  to  go  into  an  account 
of  a  number  of  these  settlements  to  represent  the  neolithic 
epoch,  for  the  settlement  at  Robenhausen  (Lake  Pfieffikon) 
takes  the  first  rank  in  giving  the  domestic  arrangements  of 
the  ancient  inhabitants.  This  settlement  covered  a  space  of 
nearly  three  acres,  and  one  hundred  thousand  piles  were  used 
in  tlie  whole  structure.  Its  form  was  an  irregular  quad- 
rangle. It  Avas  about  two  thousand  paces  from  tlie  ancient 
western  shore  of  the  lake,  and  about  three  thousand  from  the 
shore  in  the  opposite  direction.  With  the  last-named  side 
there  was  a  communication  by  means  of  a  bridge,  the  piles  of 
which  are  still  visible.  On  this  side  were  the  gardens  and 
pastures.  The  dwellers  of  this  settlement  Avere  unfortunate, 
as  their  habitation  was  twice  burned  up,  and  each  time,  they 
rallied  and  rebuilt  their  huts.  They  remained  a  long  time  as 
would  seem  from  the  depth  of  the  peat  and  the  vast  amount 
of  relics  found. 

At  a  deptli  of  eleven  feet  were  found  the  earliest  or  most 
ancient  relics ;  at  ten  and  one-half  feet,  the  remains  of  the 
first  conflagration — charcoal,  stone  and  bone  implements, 
pottery,  woven  cloth,  corn,  apples,  etc.  ;  at  seven  and  one- 
half  feet,  flooring,  relics  of  the  second  settlement,  and 
excrement  of  cows,  sheep,  and  goats  ;  at  six  and  one  half 
feet,  remains  of  second  conflagration — charcoal,  stone  and 
bone  implements,  pottery,  woven  cloth,  corn,  apples,  etc.  ;  at 
three  and  one-half  feet,  broken  stones,  flooring,  and  relics  of 
the  third  settlement ;  at  two  and  one  half  feet,  stone  celts, 
pottery,  but  no  traces  of  fire.  Above  this  was  two  feet  ol 
peat  and  one-half  foot  of  mould. 

Without  going  into  detail,   the  objects  found   in  these 

*  Bucbner, p.  247;  "Keller's  Lake-Dwellings." 


NEOLITHIC    EPOCH.  99 

various  beds  are  as  follows  :  Made  out  of  wood,  are  knives, 
ladles,  plates,  clubs  of  ash,  in  which  is  fixed  a  socket  of  stag's 
horn  containing  a  stone  celt,  a  boat  made  of  a  single  trunk, 
twelve  feet  long,  two  and  one-half  feet  wide,  and  five  inches 
deep,  flails  for  threshing  out  grain,  bows  notched  at  both 
ends,  fishing  implements,  floats  for  the  support  of  nets,  sus- 
pension hooks,  tubs,  chisels,  sandals,  yokes  made  for  carrying 
vessels,  and  a  peculiar  ornament.  These  imj)lements  were  all 
made  out  of  yew,  maple,  ash,  fir,  and  the  root  of  the  hazel 
bush.  Out  of  stag's  horn — arrow-heads,  daggers,  piercing 
and  scraping  tools,  implements  for  knitting  and  for  agricul- 
ture. The  implements  of  stone  were  polished,  and  of  the 
usual  form.  The  objects  of  clay  were  fragments  of  pottery,  in 
the  shape  of  urns,  jolates,  and  cups,  in  great  abundance. 
There  Avcre  also  found  spoons,  and  a  perforated  cone,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  used  as  a  weight  for  the  loom.  Several 
crucibles  or  melting  pots  have  been  found,  which  were  used 
for  melting  copper.  The  third  building  of  this  village  was 
on  the  borderland  between  tlio  stone  and  bronze  affcs. 

Tlie  remains  of  animals  found  here  and  at  Moosseedorf 
and  AVauwyl,  all  of  the  neolithic,  belong  to  the  brown  bear, 
badger,  marten,  pine-marten,  polecat,  wolf,  fox,  wild-cat, 
beaver,  elk,  urns,  bison,  stag,  roe-deer,  wild-boar,  marsh-boar  ; 
the  domestic  animals  were  the  boar,  horse,  ox,  goat,  shee}?, 
and  dog.  The  remains  of  the  domestic  hog  are  absent  from 
all  the  pile  works  of  this  period,  save  the  one  at  "Wauwyl. 

Among  cereals  (Robenhausen)  were  found  several  varieties 
of  wheat  and  barley ;  fruits  and  berries — service-tree,  dog- 
rose,  elder,  bilberry,  and  wayfaring  tree  ;  the  nuts — hazel, 
beech,  and  water-chestnut ;  the  oil-producing  jilants — opium, 
or  garden  poppy,  and  dogwood  ;  the  fibrous  plants^flax  ; 
plants  used  for  dying — weld  ;  forest  trees  and  slirubs — silver 
fir,  juniper,  yew,  ash,  and  oak ;  water  and  marsh  plants — 
lake  scirpus,  pondweeds,  common  hornwort,  marsh  bedstraw, 
buckbean,  3'cllow  waterlily,  ivy-lea  red  crowfoot,  and  marsh 
pennywort. 


100  ANTIQUITY   OF   MAN. 

Besides  tlicse  there  liave  been  found  many  specimens  of 
plaited  and  woven  cloth ;  also  ropes,  cords,  and  a  j)ortion  of 
a  linseed  cake.* 

Ill  tlic  different  settlements  the  same  axes  and  knives 
abound,  and  are  of  small  size.  Tlic  arrow-heads  and  saws 
are  an  improvement  on  those  of  the  preceding  epoch. 
Among  domestic  implements,  spindle-whorls  ol  rude  earthen- 
ware were  abundant  in  some  of  the  villages,  and  corn-crushers 
are  occasionally  met  with  from  two  to  three  inches  in  diam- 
eter.  About  five  hundred  implements  of  stone  have  been 
found  at  Wauwyl,  consisting  of  axes,  small  flint  arrow-heads, 
flint-flakes,  corn-crushers,  rude  stones  used  as  hammers, 
whetstones,  and  sling-stones. 

As  these  Lake-Dwellings  not  only  belong  to  the  last  of 
the  neolithic,  but  extend  beyond,  they  naturally  have  a  place 
in  the  close  of  this  period.  M.  Troyon  says  the  dwellings  of 
this  period  came  suddenly  to  an  ''  end  by  the  irruption  of  a 
people  provided  with  bronze  implements.  The  lake-dwell- 
ings were  burned  by  these  new-comers,  and  the  primitive 
inhabitants  were  slaughtered  or  driven  back  into  remote 
places.  Tliis  catastroplie  affects  chiefly  the  settlements  of 
East  Switzerland,  which  entirely,  disappeared,  and  also  a 
number  of  tliose  on  the  shore  of  the  Avestern  lakes.  Some  few 
settlements,  however — namely,  those  of  the  so-called  transi- 
tion i>eriod — are  said  not  to  have  been  destroyed  by  the  new 
peoi)le  till  after  the  inhabitants  had  begun  to  make  use  of 
l)ronze  implements."  f 

Dr.  Keller  takes  exception  to  these  views,  lie  says  tlierc 
is  no  sudden  leap  from  one  class  of  civilization  t»t  another, 
and  that  the  metals  came  gradually  into  use.  The  lake- 
dwellings  were  not  burned  down  by  the  irruption  of  a  foreign 
people  ;  for  at  Niederwyl,  and  several  settlements  of  the 
Unter-See,  no  traces  of  fire  luive  been  observed.     The  fact 

*  "  r.ake  Dwelling-s,"  pp.  37.  324,  350,  3G0. 
f  "  Lako-Dw(aiin>rs,"  p.  394. 


liiEOLITniC   EPOCH.  101 

that  but  a  very  fcAV  human  skeletons  have  been  found  in  the 
whole  settlements,  contradicts  the  supposition  of  a  battle 
having  taken  place  between  the  aborigines  and  the  suj^posed 
conquerors,  and  of  the  destruction  of  the  former  by  the 

latter.*  •*•'',•  •  '■  .' 

Lake-dwellings  belonging  to  this  ago  and  tli'c'b*r6nzej''have 
been  found  in  Bavaria,  Northern  Italy,  M(!clcle,kbtirg,  ;Pome-  > 
rania,  France,  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  '  ilferodc/tu's ' 
says  that  the  Pieonians  lived  this  way  in  Lake  Prasias 
(Thrace),  and  Lubbock  says  that  the  fishermen  of  Lake 
Prasias  still  inhabit  wooden  huts  built  over  the  water.  The 
town  of  Tcherkask  in  Kussia,  is  constructed  over  the  river 
Don,  and  Venice  itself  is  but  a  lacustrine  city.f 

Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  estimate  the  time 
Avhich  has  elapsed  since  the  neolithic  period.  The  estimates 
of  M.  Morlot  are  based  on  the  discoveries  made  in  a  hillock 
formed  by  the  river  Tiniere  at  its  entrance  into  the  lake  of 
Geneva.  This  cone  contained  three  distinct  layers  of  vegeta- 
ble earth  placed  at  different  depths  between  the  deposits  of 
alluvium.  The  first  was  at  a  depth  of  three  and  one-half  feet 
from  the  top,  and  was  from  four  to  six  inches  thick,  and  iu 
it  Avere  found  relics  of  the  Koman  period ;  the  second  was 
five  and  one-fourth  feet  lower,  and  six  inches  thick,  in  which 
were  fragments  of  bronze  ;  the  third  was  at  a  depth  of  eigh- 
teen feet  from  the  top,  and  varied  in  thickness  from  six  to 
seven  inches,  and  contained  fragments  of  the  stone  age. 
History  proves  that  the  layer  containing  the  Eoman  relics  is 
from  thirteen  to  eighteen  centuries  old.  Since  that  epoch 
the  cone  has  increased  three  and  one-half  feet,  and  if  the 
increase  was  the  same  in  previous  ages,  then  the  bed  contain- 
ing the  bronze  is  from  twenty-nine  hundred  to  forty-two 
hundred  years  old,  and  the  lowest  layer,  belonging  to  the 
stone  age,  is  from  four  thousand  seven  hundred  to  ten 
thousand  years  old. 

*  "  Lake-Dwellings,"  p.  39G.      \  "  Primitive  MaD,"  p.  219. 


W^  ANTIQUITY    OF   MAX.  ' 

Tlie   calculation   by   M.    Gillieron   was   made   from   the 

discoveries  near  the  brid<:;e  of  Thiele.     About  one  thousand  ' 

two  hundred  and  thirty  feet  from  the  present  shore  is  the  old  j 

abbey  of   Saint  Jean,  built  in  the  year  1100.     There  is  a  ] 

document  i/hich  seems  to  show  that  the  abbey  was  built  on  i 

the  edge  of  the  lake.     Then,  in  seven  hundred  and  fifty  yeai'S  '' 

the  lalic. retired  ovie  thousand  two  hundred  and  thirty  feet.  i 

The  distance  of  the  present  shore  from  the  settlement  of  the  j 

bridge  of  Thiele  is  eleven  thousand  and  seventy-two  feet,  and  \ 

consequently  the  settlement  is  not  less  than  six  thousand  ; 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  years  old. 

M.  Figuier  assigns  to  the  lake-dwellings  an  antiquity  of  i 

from  six  to  seven  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era.*  ^i 

«  "  Primitive  Man,"  p.  293.  '| 


CHAPTER  XI. 

MAN"   OF   THE    NEOLITHIC. 

FfioM  the  human  bones  found  in  peat-bogs  and  tumuli, 
man  is  represented  as  having  a  narrow  but  round  skull, 
with  a  projecting  ridge  above  the  eyebrows,  showing  he  was 
round-headed,  liis  eyebrows  overhanging,  small  of  stature 
though  stout,  and  having  a  great  resemblance  to  the  Lap- 
landers, In  many  respects  the  race  was  much  superior  to 
that  of  the  preceding  epocli.  Man  advanced  rajoidly  in  the 
arts,  and  made  great  progress  in  civilization.  He  had  passed 
out  of  the  barbarous,  and  might  be  called  a  semi-barbarian. 

Habitations. — Man's  habitation  varied  according  to  the 
locality.  In  the  extreme  south  of  France  he  continued  for  a 
considerable  length  of  time  to  occupy  the  caves  and  rock- 
shelters  ;  in  Switzerland,  the  pile-buildings,  and  in  Denmark 
he  undoubtedly  had  rude  huts  placed  close  together  and  in 
proximity  to  the  shell-heaps. 

Clothing. — Clothing  also  varied  according  to  locality. 
Where  the  wild  animals  were  numerous  their  skins  were 
used — there  being  no  incentive  to  substitute  other  material. 
Coarse  material  made  of  fibrous  plants  had  come  into  use. 
The  lake-dwellers  clothed  themselves  with  this  material,  and 
completely  protected  their  bodies.  They  also  used  sandals  for 
their  feet,  as  these  have  been  found  with  the  usual  indica- 
tions of  usage. 

Food. — Where  wild  animals  could  be  obtained  they  were 
used,  and  the  marrow  of  the  long  bones  extracted.  To  this, 
fish  and  birds  were  added.  In  Denmark  the  princijial  food 
was  the  different  species  of  tlie  edible  mollusk.     In  Switzer- 


104  ANTIQUITY    OF   MAN. 

land  a  higher  order  and  greater  variety  of  food  was  used. 
The  meat  of  the  wild  animals,  birds,  and  lisli  was  yaried 
with  bread  made  of  barley  and  wheat,  and  frnit  and  berries. 
The  meat  was  not  only  obtained  from  the  wild  animal,  but 
they  provided  against  the  uncertainty  of  the  chase  by  domes- 
ticating the  boar,  ox,  sheep,  and  goat.  The  horse  and  dog 
were  domesticated  to  assist  in  the  chase,  but  sometimes 
served  for  food,  probably  during  a  famine. 

If  these  people  were  cannibals,  the  evidence  must  rest 
solely  on  the  human  bones  discovered  at  a  dolmen  near  the 
village  of  Hammer,  Denmark,  which  had  been  subjected  to 
the  action  of  fire.  They  were  found  together  with  some  flint 
implements.  But  this  evidence  is  not  sufficient  to  lead  to  the 
conclusion  that  at  the  funeral  banquets  human  flesh  was  used 
along  Avith  the  roasted  stag. 

Aris  and  Manufactures. — The  flint  hatchets  of  the  refuse- 
heaps  arc  generally  of  an  imperfect  type ;  the  long  knives 
indicate  a  considerable  amount  of  skill ;  the  bodkins,  spear- 
heads, and  scrapers  arc  but  little  improved.  In  the  latter 
part  of  this  epoch,  the  various  kinds  of  implements,  especially 
in  Switzerland,  attained  to  a  surprising  degree  of  perfection, 
in  so  much  so,  it  is  difficult  to  understand  how  this  was 
achieved  without  the  use  of  metal.  They  were  made  into 
various  shapes,  and  with  the  design  of  i:»leasiug  the  eye. 

Besides  the  various  types  of  implements  common  to  tho 
different  countries,  tlie  tribes  of  Denmark  manufactured  a 
drilled  hatchet,  which  is  combined  in  various  ways  with  the 
hammer.  A  specimen  of  this  type  is  represented  in  Fig.  IG, 
now  in  the  Museum  of  Copenhagen.  It  is  pierced  with  a 
round  hole,  in  which  the  handle  Avas  fixed.  The  cutting  edge 
describes  an  arc  of  a  circle,  and  the  other  end  is  Avrought 
into  sharp  angular  edges. 

New  inventions  were  brought  into  use.  Among  them  was 
a  comb  which,  according  to  shape,  might  be  comi)arcd  to  the 
dung-fork  of  the  American  stables.  Ornaments  for  the  body, 
made  of  various  materials  were  fashioned.     Pottery  was  stilj 


MAN    OF   TUE   XEOLITIIIC.  105 

m  a  rough  state,  though  gradually  improying.  The  loom  was 
invented,  and  various  kinds  of  cloth  were  manufactured. 
Also  out  of  the  fibrous  plants  cordage  was  made,  which  again 
was  fashioned  into  nets  for  fishing.  Many  canoes  at  various 
places  have  been  found,  showing  that  they  were  not  only  used 
for  fishing  but  also  for  carrying  cargoes.  Workshops  were 
established,  and  there  the  stone  implements  were  made  and 
polished  ;  one  of  these  shops  was  at  Pressigny. 

Some  idea  may  be  had  of  the  vast  number  of  stone  imple- 
ments which  occur,  when  it  is  considered  that  in  the  Museum 
of  Copenhagen  there  are  about  twelve  thousand,  consisting  of 
flint  axes,  wedges,  broad,  narrow,  and  hollow  chisels  ;  pon- 
iards, lance-heads,  arrow-heads,  flint  flakes,  and  half-moon- 

FiG.  IG. 


Danish  Axe-Hammer,  Drilled  for  Hakdle. 

shaped  implements.  In  other  collections  m  Denmark  there 
are  twenty  thousand  implements.  The  museum  at  Stock- 
holm contains  about  sixteen  thousand,  and  the  Royal  Irish 
Academy  owns  seven  hundred  flint-flakes,  five  hundred  and 
twelve  celts,  more  than  four  hundred  arrow-heads,  fifty  spear- 
heads, seventy-five  scrapers,  and  numerous  other  objects  of 
stone,  such  as  sling-stones,  hammers,  whetstones,  grain- 
crushers,  etc.*  Some  of  these  implements,  however,  may 
belong  to  other  epochs. 

War  must  have  been  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent, 
as  fortified  camps  have  been  discovered  in  Belgium,  at  Fur- 
fooz,  and  other  places.  Their  weapons  were  the  axe,  the 
arrow,  the  spear,  and  possibly  the  knife.  These  were  wrought 
with  great  care. 

*  "  Pre  Historic  Times,"  p.  70. 
5* 


100  ANTIQUITY    OF   MAN. 

Agriculture. — Man  commenced  to  till  the  gi-ound  in  tins 
age,  and  thus  laid  the  true  foundation  of  civilization.  He 
probably  Avas  forced  to  do  it.  The  beasts  of  the  forest  were 
giadually  decreasing.  They  had  nourished  him  in  the 
infanc}'  of  his  mind,  and  now  he  should  begin  to  look  to  the 
soil,  and  by  the  cultivation  of  its  products  he  must  sustain  his 
life.  His  principal  implement  of  agriculture  must  have  been 
the  sharpened  stick,  pointed  with  deer-horn.  He  cultivated 
the  cereals,  made  his  corn-mill,  and  stored  the  gi*ain  for 
winter  use. 

Burial — How  the  colonists  of  the  lake-dwellings  disposed 
of  their  dead  is  unknown.  In  Denmark,  and  many  other 
places,  the  dead  were  buried  in  dolmens  or  tumuli.  A  dol 
men  is  a  monument  consisting  of  several  perpendicular  stones 
covered  with  a  great  block  or  slab.  When  it  is  surrounded 
by  circles  of  stone  it  takes  the  name  cromlech.  The  dolmens 
occur  also  in  Scandinavia,  France,  and  Brittany.  They 
were  formerly  considered  to  have  been  Druidical  sacrificial 
altars.  They  were  usually  covered  over  with  earth,  and  in 
them  were  buried  from  one  to  twenty  persons,  accompanied 
with  their  implements.  When  a  person  died,  the  tomb  was 
reopened  to  receive  the  new  occupant.  At  such  a  time  fire 
was  used  for  the  purpose  of  purifying  the  atmosphere  of  the 
tomb.  In  Brittany,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  tombs,  there 
were  set  up  in  the  ground  enormous  blocks  of  stone,  that 
have  received  the  name  of  menJnrs,  the  most  noted  of  which 
is  that  at  Carnac.  When  these  dolmens  remain  in  the  state 
in  which  they  were  left,  still  covered  with  earth,  they  take 
the  name  of  tumuli.  Comjiaratively  few  of  the  tumuli 
belong  to  the  neolithic.  In  these,  large  numbers  of  bodies 
have  been  found,  and  none  of  them  in  a  natural  position,  but 
cramped  up  and  their  heads  resting  between  the  knees. 

Judging  from  the  calcined  bones,  Avhich  are  frequently 
met  with  at  the  tomb,  it  may  be  inferred  that  victims  were 
offered  during  the  funeral  ceremonies,  perchance  a  slave,  or 
the  widow.     Lubbock  is  of  opinion  that  when  a  woman  died 


MAN"   OF  TUE   NEOLITHIC.  107 

in  giving  birth  to  a  child,  or  even  -while  still  suckling  it,  the 
child  was  interred  alive  with  her.* 

This  hypothesis  is  substantiated  by  the  great  number  of 
cases  in  which  the  skeleton  of  a  woman  and  child  have  been 
found  together.  In  the  ceremonies  at  the  tomb,  some  read 
the  belief  in  a  future  state  of  existence.  The  evidence,  how- 
ever, is  no  clearer  than  that  in  the  previous  epochs.  Man 
undoubtedly  had  such  a  belief,  but  science  does  not  reveal  it. 


»  « 


Primitive  Mau,"  p.  300. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


BHOXZE    EPOCH. 


The  Ago  of  Bronze  bears  no  direct  relation  to  the  anti- 
qnity  of  man,  for  it  is  largely  embraced  in  written  history. 
Although  history  does  not  record  the  events  of  the  age  of 
bronze  in  Western  Europe,  yet  history  covers  the  time  which 
embraces  the  use  of  bronze.  This  epoch  has  more  to  do 
with  the  archseologist  than  the  geologist.  It  is  marked  by  the 
abundance  of  swords,  spears,  fish-hooks,  sickles,  knives? 
ornaments,  and  other  articles  made  of  bronze.  The  bronze 
implements  are  principally  found  in  England,  Scotland, 
Ireland,  France,  Denmark,  Norway,  Italy,  and  Switzerland. 
The  lake-settlements  of  Switzerland  known  to  belong  to 
this  epoch  are  :  Geneva,  ten  settlements  ;  Neuchatel,  twenty- 
five  settlements  ;  Bienne,  ten  settlements ;  Morat,  three  set- 
tlements ;  and  Sempach,  two  settlements.  To  these  may  be 
added  some  of  the  crannoges  of  Ireland ;  also  many  tumuli 
and  mounds. 

Type. — The  man  of  this  epoch  was  not  unlike  that  of  the 
preceding.  His  head  was  rather  broad  than  long ,  he  was 
small,  energetic,  and  muscular ;  his  hands  were  small,  as  is 
proven  by  the  remarkably  small  handles  of  their  swoi'ds, 
which  are  too  small  for  a  hand  of  the  present  day.  This 
type  of  man  has  maintained  itself  in  the  north  of  Switzer- 
land to  the  present  time. 

IJabitations  and  Food. — The  caves  and  rock-shelters  gave 
way  ejitirely  to  the  rude  huts  which  now  protected  man.  If 
they  were  resorted  to,  it  was  only  from  some  peculiar  cause  or 
danger.  The  food  was  the  same  as  in  the  neolithic,  with 
additions  to  the  cereals. 


BEONZE   EPOCH. 


109 


Clotldng. — The  skins  of  animals  were  used  less  than 
formerly  for  clothing.  Garments  made  of  other  material 
have  been  found,  and  even  the  whole  dress  of  a  chief.  In  a 
tumulus  of  Jutland  there  were  found  a  thick  woollen  cap,  a 
coarse  woollen  cloak  (Fig.  17),  semicircular  in  form,  scal- 
loped out  round  the  neck,  shaggy  in  the  inside,  three  feet 
four  inches  long,  and  wide  in  proj)ortion  ;  two  woollen  shawls, 
a  woollen  shirt,  woollen  loggings,  and  the  remains  of  a  pair  of 
leather  boots.    Fibrous  plants  also  contributed  to  the  comfort 

Fig.   17. 


Woollen  Cloak  of  the  Bronze  Epoch,  Found  in  1861,  Uf 
A  Tumulus  in  Jutland. 

of  man,  and  were  possibly  used  for  summer  wear,  and  under 
garments  in  winter. 

Implements. — The  ijeople  of  this  age  made  great  improve- 
ments in  their  weapons,  tools,  and  ornaments.  They  consist 
of  bronze  celts,  swords,  hammers,  knives,  hair-pins,  small 
rings,  ear-rings,  bracelets,  fish-hooks,  awls,  spiral-wires,  lance- 
heads,  arrow-heads,  buttons,  needles,  various  ornaments, 
saws,  daggers,  sickles,  and  double-pointed  pins.  There  were 
also  ornaments  of  gold.  Only  one  implement,  a  winged  celt, 
has  been  found,  which  bore  an  inscription 

Arts. — Progress  was  made  in  the  art  of  weaving.     Solder- 


110  ANTIQUITY   OF   MAN. 

ing  and  the  moulding  of  metal  were  practised ;  foundries 
were  establislied,  tlie  remains  of  which  have  been  discovered 
at  Dcvaine  and  Walflingcr  in  Switzerland  ;  stone  moulds 
were  used,  one  of  whicli,  on  trial,  produced  a  hatchet  exactly 
similar  to  those  wlfich  liave  been  collected.  The  moulds 
were  usually  made  out  of  sand.  The  crucible  used  for  the 
melting  of  the  metal  was  made  out  of  pottery  which  was 
placed  over  a  hole  in  the  earth  filled  with  burning  charcoal ; 
when  the  metal  was  melted,  it  was  poured  into  the  mould. 
Pottery  took  new  shapes  and  was  adorned  with  various 
patterns.  Glass,  which  has  so  long  been  ascribed  to  Phoeni- 
cian origin,  was  invented  in  the  bronze  age,  for  glass  beads, 
of  a  blue  or  green  color,  have  been  found  in  the  tombs  of  this 
epoch. 

Agriculture. — The  cereals  attest  to  the  tilling  of  the  soil. 
The  ground  was  prepared  by  the  projecting  branch  of  a  stem 
of  the  tree,  used  as  a  plough.  The  grain  was  stored  for 
winter  use,  and  when  required  was  crushed  by  being  rubbed 
between  two  stones  serving  as  a  mortar. 

Fishing  and  Navigation. — There  are  no  distinct  traces  of 
improvement  beyond  the  past  epoch,  in  fishing  and  naviga- 
tion, unless  it  be  in  tlie  improved  hooks  made  of  bronze. 

Burial. — The  custom  of  burning  the  dead  was  almost 
universal  in  Denmark,  and  was  more  or  less  practised  in 
other  countries.  The  ashes  and  fragments  of  the  bone  were 
collected  and  placed  either  in  or  under  an  urn.  "When 
buried,  the  corjise  was  usually  placed  in  a  contracted  position, 
but  occasionally  extended.  With  the  dead  were  buried  their 
implements  and  clothing.  The  body  of  the  chief  discovered 
in  a  tumulus  in  Jutland,  where  the  clothing  was  found, 
was  buried  in  a  coflBn  nine  and  two-third  feet  long,  over  two 
feet  in  breadth,  and  covered  by  a  movable  lid.  The  body 
was  in  a  good  state  of  preservation,  owing  to  the  action  on  it 
of  water  strongly  impregnated  with  iron.  It  was  wrapped  in 
the  woollen  cloak,  and  again  wrapped  in  an  ox's  hide. 
Buried  with  it  were  the  shawls,  leggings,  shirt,  boots,  and 


BHO^'ZE    El'OCn.  Ill 

caps,  two  small  boxes,  a  bronze  razor,  comb,  a  bronze  sword 
in  a  ^vooden  sheath,  and  a  long  woollen  band.  In  other 
coffins  have  been  found  swords,  knives,  brooches,  awls,  tweez- 
ers, and  buttons,  all  of  bronze.  In  a  baby's  coffin  was  found 
an  amber  bead,  and  a  small  bronze  bracelet. 

Religious  Belief. — Many  crescents,  made  of  stone  and 
earthenware,  have  been  found  which  are  regarded,  by  some 
archeeologists,  as  religious  emblems.  Dr.  Keller  calls  them 
"  moon  images,"  and  has  devoted  a  short  chapter  to  their 
consideration.*  On  the  other  hand,  Lubbock  and  Carl  Vogt 
regard  them  as  resting-places  for  the  head  at  night,  f  They 
carefully  arranged  their  long  hair,  and  evidently  sacrificed 
comfort  for  vanity.  They  carried  a  long  pin  with  which  to 
scratch  the  head.  This  kind  of  a  pillow  is  still  used  by  the 
Fuegeans  and  Abyssinians,  who  have  their  hair  elaborately 
decorated  ;  and  in  sonje  cases  this  is  never  disturbed.  If  the 
people  were  worshippers  the  crescent  is  the  only  evidence 
from  archaeology.  No  idols  have  ever  been  discovered.  That 
the  people  were  already  worshippers  may  be  learned  from  the 
traditions  recorded  in  history. 

*  "  Lake  Dwellings,"  p.  319. 

f  "  Pre-Historic  Times,"  p.  218  ;  "  Primitive  Man,"  p.  281. 


CHAPTER  XIIL 


IROX    EPOCH. 


As  the  Iron  Ejmch  fairly  establishes  civilization,  and 
belongs  almost  wholly  to  the  historical  epoch,  it  will  bo 
here  briefly  noticed,  and  then  dismissed  after  giving  a  quota- 
tion from  Dr.  Keller.  The  bronze  had  not  only  prepared  the 
way  for  the  iron  c]ioch,  but  also  gave  a  great  imjiulse  to 
succeeding  ages.  Tlie  art  of  metallurgy  assumed  a  new 
importance  and  gave  new  life  to  every  movement  that  tended 
to  the  assistance  of  man.     The  woi'ks  of  bronze  gave  way  to 

Fk;.   18. 


A  Knife  of  the  Ikon  Ei'OCii. 

those  of  iron.  A  knife  made  of  iron  is  represented  in  Fig. 
18.  Knives  of  this  pattern  were,  however,  made  of  bronze, 
and  served  for  the  same  purpose.  The  workshops  of  this  age 
were  so  numerous  that  four  hundred  of  them  have  been  dis- 
covered in  one  province.  The  potter's  wheel  was  invented  ; 
money  was  introduced,  and  agriculture  greatly  flourislied. 

Some  of  the  Swiss  lake-dwellings  of  Ncuchatel  and  Biennc 
belong  to  this  epoch.  Dr.  Keller,  in  summing  up  some  of  his 
observations,  has  made  use  of  the  folloAving  language  :  "The 
phenomenon  of  the  lake-dwellings,  so  important  in  the  his- 
tory of  civilization,  the  time  of  their  first  establishment,  their 
original  design,  their  (lcvcl<)])m('nt,  atid  their  tinal  extinction, 


iiiox  Erocii.  113 

in  spite  of  many  accumuluted  facts,  is  in  many  respects 
clouded  in  doubt.  .  .  .  It  is  certain  from  the  very  begin- 
ning of  tliis  peculiar  mode  of  living  to  the  latest  period  of  its 
existence,  Avhilc  outward  circumstances  remained  the  same,  a 
quiet  advance  to  a  better  development  of  the  conditions  of  life 
may  be  observed,  in  which  there  was  neitlicr  retrogression 
nor  any  sudden  advance  by  the  intervention  of  foreigu 
elements.  The  general  diffusion  of  metals  in  a  country 
which  liad  none,  is  explained  simply  by  the  barter  which 
existed  throughout  Europe  in  the  very  earliest  ages.  The 
question  why  the  inhal)itants  of  a  lake-dwelling  of  the  stone 
age  abandoned  tlicir  settlements,  while  those  of  another,  not 
many  hours'  or  many  minutes'  walk  distant,  remained  quietly 
living  on  their  platforms,  is  of  no  greater  importance  than 
the  inquiry  why,  during  tlic  middle  ages,  so  many  localities 
have  disappeared,  the  names  and  situations  of  which  are 
knoAvn  to  us.  The  presence  of  objects  of  industry  on  the 
area  of  the  lake-dwellings  lias  nothing  in  it  very  surjirising,  if 
"we  consider  what  misfortunes  villages  of  straw-covered  huts 
were  exposed  to,  in  "whicli  not  only  the  houses  themselves, 
but  even  the  pkitforms  on  which  they  stood,  Avere  formed  of 
very  combustible  materials.  It  is  possible,  if  wo  are  to  take 
Caesar's  account  literally,  that  when  the  Ilelvetii,  whoso 
arrival  in  the  country  is  neither  mentioned  in  history  nor 
shown  by  archoeology,  withdrew,  the  lake-dwellings  then 
existing  Avere,  as  a  whole,  burned  down  ;  but  there  can  also  bo 
no  doubt  that  some  remained  standing,  or  were  rebuilt  after 
the  return  of  the  population.  Their  continuing  down  to  the 
Roman  time  is  only  astonishing  to  any  one  who  imagines  that 
at  this  time  the  whole  population  had  gone  over  to  the 
Roman  manner  of  life,  while  the  proof  lies  before  him  that 
the  lower  class  adhered  to  their  own  manners  and  customs 
till  the  entrance  of  the  German  races."  * 

*  "  Lake-Dwellings,"  p.  400. 


CHAPTER  XrV. 

TRACES   OF    MAN   IN   AMERICA. 

America  furnishes  a  better  field  for  the  antiquary  than 
the  old  Avorld.  Her  ancient  remains  are  not  so  much  injured 
by  the  decay  of  empires  and  the  rude  hand  of  war.  Succeed- 
ing ages  have  not  so  much  effaced  these  marks,  and  many  of 
the  remains  still  stand  as  left  by  the  original  occupants,  save 
only  tlie  change  and  decay  Avhich  time  itself  produces. 
America  will  yet  be  discovered.  It  is  true  the  landmarks  are 
known  ;  but  these  have  not  been  investigated  so  diligently  as 
the  remains  of  man  in  Europe.  The  Boucher  de  Perthes  and 
the  Dr.  Schmerling  are  yet  to  come.  Until  they  do,  the 
history  of  primitive  man  in  America  must  be  surrounded 
with  great  uncertainty.  Much  labor  has  been  given  to  the 
investigation  of  this  subject,  and  many  works  written,  all 
looking  toward  an  early  development  which  must  sooner  or 
later  come. 

In  this  chapter  the  aim  will  only  be  to  point  out  some  of 
these  traces. 

Enumeration. — The  implements  from  the  gravel  beds  of 
Colorado  and  the  skull  from  Calaveras  county,  California, 
have  already  been  referred  to  (pp.  61,  02). 

Near  Osage  Mission,  Kansas,  there  was  found  a  human 
skull  imbedded  in  a  solid  rock,  which  was  broken  open  by 
blasting.  It  Avas  examined  by  Dr.  Weirley,  who  compared 
it  witli  a  modern  skull,  and  found  it  resembled  the  latter  in 
general  shape,  yet  it  was  an  inch  and  a  quarter  longer.  Of 
this  relic  he  says  :  ''It  belonged  to  a  man  of  a  large  size,  and 
was  imbedded   in    conglomerate   i"ock  of  the  tertiary  class. 


Tl{AiJi:S    OF    -MAX    IX    AMEIUCA.  115 

and  found  several  feet  beneath  the  surface.  Parts  of  the 
frontal,  parietal,  and  occipital  bones  were  carried  away  by 
the  explosion.  The  piece  of  rock  holding  the  remains  weighs 
some  forty  or  fifty  pounds,  with  many  impressions  of  marine 
shells,  and  through  it  runs  a  vein  of  quartz,  or  within  the 
cranium  crystallized  organic  matter,  and  by  the  aid  of  a 
microscope  presents  a  beautiful  appearance."  In  shape  the 
Neanderthal  man  comes  nearest  to  it.* 

In  the  Comstock  lode  (Nevada),  at  a  depth  of  five 
hundred  feet.  Judge  A.  W.  Baldwin  found  a  human  skull  of 
unusual  and  peculiar  shape.  It  is  very  short  from  base  to 
sunmiit,  and  exceedingly  broad  between  the  ears.  The  skull 
is  entire,  with  the  excei^tion  of  the  facial  bones.  This  skull 
has  never  been  examined  by  a  competent  person,  f 

In  the  drift-clay,  in  the  city  of  Toronto,  at  a  depth  of  two 
feet  from  the  surface,  were  discovered  the  bones  and  horn  of 
a  deer,  amidst  an  accumulation  of  charcoal  and  ashes,  and 
with  them  a  rude  stone  chisel  or  hatchet.  J 

In  the  gravel  of  the  gold-bearing  quartz  of  the  Grinell 
leads  (Kansas),  was  found  an  imperfect  flint  knife  at  a  depth 
of  fourteen  feet.  Above  the  implement  the  gravel,  composed 
of  quartz  and  reddish  clay,  was  ten  feet  thick,  and  above  this 
was  four  feet  of  rich  black  soil.  This  implement  was  given 
CO  Dr.  Daniel  Wilson  by  Mr.  P.  A.  Scott.  § 

Dr.  Dickeson  found,  in  the  yellow  loam  of  the  Mississippi 
at  Natchez,  a  human  pelvic  bone  along  with  the  bones  of  the 
mastodon  and  megalonyx.  They  were  found  at  a  depth  of 
thirty  feet  from  the  surface,  and  the  human  bone  had  tiie 
same  black  color  which  characterized  the  others.  Sir 
Charles  Lyell  calculated  that  it  required  sixty-seven  thousand 
years  to  form  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi,  but  admits,  if  the 
conclusions  arrived   at  by  the  United  States  engineers  be 

*  "  Science  Kecord,"  p.  5G4.     1875. 

f  "American  Phrenological  Journal,"  February,  1874. 

X  Wilson's  "  Pre-Historic  Man,"  p.  40. 

g  •*  Pre-Historic  Man,"  p.  4G. 


IIG  ANTIQUITY    OF    MAN- 

correct,  in  respect  to  tlie  aniiiuil  amount  of  sediment  dis- 
cliargetl  at  tlic  delta,  tlic  growth  would  be  reduced  to  thirty- 
throe  thousand  five  liundred  years.  Taking  cither  of  these 
estimates,  the  same  would  give  the  number  of  years  which 
have  elapsed  since  these  bones  were  deposited.* 

In  an  excavation  made  near  New  Orleans,  at  a  depth  of 
sixteen  feet  from  the  surface,  beneath  four  cypress  forests 
superimposed  one  upon  the  other,  the  workmen  found  a 
complete  human  skeleton,  and  some  charcoal.  The  cranium 
is  similar  to  the  aboriginal  type  of  the  Indian  race.  This 
discovery  furnished  the  data  from  Avhicli  Dr.  Bennet  Dowler 
assigned  to  the  human  race  an  antiquity,  in  the  delta  of  the 
Mississippi,  of  lif ty-seven  thousand  years,  f 

Count  Pourtales  found  some  fossil  human  remains,  con- 
sisting of  jaws,  teeth,  and  some  bones  of  the  foot,  in  a 
calcareous  conglomerate  forming  a  part  of  the  series  of  reefs 
of  Florida.  The  whole  series  of  reefs  is  of  post- tertiary 
origin,  and,  according  to  Professor  Agassiz,  has  been  one 
hundred  and  thirty-five  thousand  years  in  forming.  If  this 
calculation  be  correct,  then  these  bones  must  have  an 
atitiquity  of  ten  thousand  years.J 

Dr.  Lund,  a  Danish  naturalist,  explored  eight  hundred 
caverns  in  Brazil,  belonging  to  different  epochs,  and  exhumed 
in  them  a  groat  number  of  unknown  animal  species.  In  a 
calcareous  cave,  near  the  lake  of  Semidouro,  he  found  the 
bones  of  not  less  than  thirty  persons  of  different  ages,  and 
showing  a  similar  state  of  decomposition  to  that  of  the  bones 
of  animals  with  which  they  were  associated.  From  the  dis- 
coveries there  made,  Lund  was  forced  to  the  conclusion  that 
man  Avas  cotemporaneous  with  the  megatherium  and  the 
mylodon — animals  belonging  to  the  post-tertiary.  § 

*  "Antiquity  of  Man,"   p.  200;  "Principles   of   Geology,"  vol.   L 
p.  454. 

f  "  Antiquity  of  Man,"  p.  4:] ;  "  Pre-Historic  Man,"  p.  47. 
X  "  Antiquity  of  Man,"  p.  44. 
9  "  Primitive  Man,"  pp.  9. 77. 


TRACES   OF   MAN    IX    AMERICA.  117 

The  shell-heaps  of  America,  are  coeval  with  those  of 
Denmark.  Those  at  Damariscotta,  Maine,,  have  been  exam- 
ined by  Professor  W.  D.  Gunning.  He  estimates  that 
within,  an  area  of  one  hundred  rods  in  length,  eighty  in 
width  there  are  piled  one  hundred  million  bushels  of  oyster 
shells.  One  dome-shaped  hillock  is  nearly  one  hundred  feet 
in  height.  The  only  human  relics  found  among  the  shells 
are  stone  gouges,  arrow-heads,  bone  needles,  pottery,  and 
copper  knives.  These  shells  were  probably  de]30sited  by  but 
a  few  individuals  at  a  time.  "When  formed,  the  oyster  was  a 
native  of  that  coast,  but  within  the  memory  of  man  the 
oyster  has  not  lived  there. 

The  Mound- Builders. — An  ancient  and  unknown  people 
of  a  certain  degree  of  civilization  have  left  remains  of  their 
greatness  in  the  fortifications  and  mounds  in  the  valleys  of 
the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries.  These  works  extend  over 
a  gi'eat  extent  of  territory.  They  are  found  in  Western 
New  York,  AYest  Virginia,  Ohio,  Kentucky,  Tennessee, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Iowa,  Nebraska, 
Missouri,  Arkansas,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Alabama,  Georgia, 
Florida,  Texas,  and  along  the  Kansas,  Platte,  and  other 
western  rivers. 

The  people  appear  to  have  originated  in  Ohio.  On 
the  southern  extremity  the  works  gradually  lose  their  distinc- 
tive character,  and  pass  into  the  higher  developed  architecture 
of  Mexico  ;  and  at  the  north,  north-east,  and  north-west,  the 
populaiion  seems  to  have  been  more  limited  and  their  works 
less  perfectly  developed.  The  people  were  jireeminently 
given  to  agriculture  ;  were  not  warlike,  and  only  navigated 
the  rivers  along  their  settlements.  The  fertile  valleys  of  the 
Scioto,  two  Miamis,  Kanawha,  White,  Wabash,  Kentucky, 
Cumberland,  and  Tennessee  rivers  were  densely  populated, 
as  indicated  by  the  numerous  works  Avhich  diversify  their 
surfaces. 

The  stone  and  bone  implements  from  the  mounds,  in  their 
shape  differ  but  little  from  those  of  Europe.     The  hatchets 


lis  ANTIQUITY   OP   MAX. 

and  knives  arc  not  only  made  of  flint  but  also  of  obsidian, 
and  other  hard  stones.  Copper  Avas  the  chief  metallic 
substance.  Out  of  this  they  made  various  implements,  and 
swords.  It  was  obtained  from  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior, 
where  they  carried  on  extensive  mining.  In  these  mines 
have  been  found  their  implements,  some  of  which  are  very 
large  diorite  hatchets,  used  as  sledges  for  breaking  off  lumps 
of  copper,  and  so  heavy  that  it  Avould  require  more  than 
one  man  to  wield  them.  The  copper  was  not  subjected  to 
heat,  but  it  was  hammered  cold  into  such  a  shape  as  was 
desired. 

Some  idea  of  the  number  of  the  mounds  and  fortresses 
may  be  given  from  the  statement  that  in  the  State  of  Ohio 
alone  there  are  from  eleven  thousand  to  twelve  thousand  of 
these  works.  The  fortresses  were  used  for  the  protection  of 
the  people  against  the  predatory  warfare  of  the  hostile  tribes, 
or  even,  it  may  be,  against  tlie  incursions  made  by  other 
Mound-Builders.  In  regard  to  the  mounds,  there  has  been 
much  speculation,  and  some  archoeologists  divide  them  into 
sacrificial,  sepulchral,  temple,  and  symbolical. 

Sacrificial — The  sacrificial  mounds  are  characterized  by 
*'  their  almost  invariable  occurrence  within  enclosures  ;  their 
regular  construction  in  uniform  layers  of  gravel,  earth,  and 
sand,  disposed  alternately  in  strata  conformable  to  the  shape 
of  the  mound  ;  and  their  covering  a  symmetrical  altar  of 
burned  clay  oi-  stone,  on  which  are  deposited  numerous  relics, 
in  all  instances  exhibiting  traces,  more  or  less  abundant,  of 
their  having  been  exposed  to  the  action  of  fire."*  Among 
the  most  remarkable  are  those  found  on  "the  Scioto,  at  the 
place  called  Mound  City  situated  on  the  western  bank. 
The  mounds  are  enclosed  by  a  simple  embankment,  between 
three  and  four  feet  high.  The  area  occupied  is  about  thir- 
teen acres,  and  includes  twenty-four  mounds.  One  of  these 
is  one  hundred  and  forty  feet  in  length,  and  the  greatest 
breadth  is  sixty  feet.     In  this  mound  occurred  four  succes- 

♦  '•  Pre-IIistoric  Man,"  p.  236. 


TKACES    OF    MAX    IX    AMHIMCA.  119 

slve  altars,  a  bushel  of  fragments  of  spear-heads,  over  fifty 
quartz  arrow-heads,  and  copper  and  other  relics.  The 
sacrificial  deposits  do  not  disclose  a  miscellaneous  assemblage 
of  relics,  for  on  one  altar  hundreds  of  sculptured  pipes  chielly 
occur  ;  on  another,  pottery,  copper  ornaments,  stone  imple- 
ments ;  on  others,  calcined  shells,  burned  bones  ;  and  on 
others,  no  deposit  has  been  noticed.  The  sacrificial  mounds 
are  found  at  Marietta  and  other  localities. 

All  the  investigations  which  have  been  made  prove  that 
the  altars  wore  not  only  used  for  a  long  period,  but  also  had 
been  repeatedly  renewed. 

Sepulchral. — The  sepulchral  mounds  are  nnmbered  by 
the  thousands.  They  are  simple  earth-pyramids,  sometimes 
elliptical  or  pear-shaped,  and  vary  in  height  from  six  to 
eighty  feet.  Usually  they  contain  but  one  skeleton,  reduced 
almost  to  ashes,  but  occasionally  in  its  ordinary  condition  and 
in  a  crouching  position.  By  the  side  of  them  occur  trinkets, 
and,  in  a  few  cases,  weapons.  These  mounds  were  probably 
only  raised  over  the  body  of  a  chief  or  some  distinguished 
person. 

Temple. — The  temple  mounds  are  truncated  pyramids, 
with  paths  or  steps  leading  to  the  summit,  and  sometimes 
with  terraces  at  different  heights.  Among  the  most  noted  of 
these  is  that  of  Cahokia  in  Illinois.  It  is  seven  hundred  feet 
long  at  its  base,  five  hundred  feet  wide,  and  ninety  feet  high. 
Its  level  summit  is  several  acres  in  extent. 

Symholical. — The  symbolical  mounds  consist  of  gigantic 
bas-reliefs  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  representing 
men,  animals,  and  inanimate  objects.  In  Wisconsin  they 
exist  in  thousands,  and  among  the  devices  are  man,  the  lizard, 
turtle,  elk,  buffalo,  bear,  fox,  otter,  raccoon,  frog,  bird,  fish, 
cross,  crescent,  angle,  straight-line,  war-club,  tobacco-pipe, 
and  other  familiar  implements  or  weapons. 

In  Dane  county  there  is  a  remarkable  group,  consisting  of 
six  quadrupeds,  six  parallelograms,  one  circular  tumulus,  one 
human  figure,  and  a  small  circle.     The  quadrupeds  are  from 


120  ANTIQUITY    OF   MAS. 

one  hundred  to  one  lumdred  and  twenty  feet  long,  and  the 
figure  of  the  man  measured  one  hundred  and  twenty- live  feet 
in  length  and  nearly  one  hundred  and  forty  feet  from  the  end 
of  one  arm  to  the  other.  Near  the  village  of  Pewaukee,  when 
first  discovered  there  Avere  two  lizards  and  seven  tortoises. 
One  of  the  latter  measured  four  hundred  and  seventy  feet. 

In  Adams  county,  Ohio,  is  th%  figure  of  a  vast  serpent ; 
its  head  occupies  the  summit  of  a  hill  and  in  its  distended 
jaws  is  a  part  of  an  oval-shaped  mass  of  earth  one  hundred  and 
sixty  feet  long,  eighty  wide,  and  four  feet  high.  The  body 
of  the  serpent  extends  round  the  hill  for  about  eight  hundred 
feet,  forming  graceful  coils  and  undulations.  Near  Grunville, 
Licking  county,  Ohio,  on  the  summit  of  a  hill  two  hundred 
feet  high,  is  the  representation  of  an  alligator.  Its  extreme 
length  is  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  average  height  four 
feet ;  the  head,  shoulders,  and  rump  are  elevated  in  parts  to 
a  height  of  six  feet ;  the  paws  are  forty  feet  long,  the  ends 
being  broader  than  tlie  links,  as  if  the  spread  of  the  toes 
were  originally  indicated.  Upon  the  inner  side  of  the  effigy 
is  a  raised  space  covered  with  stones  which  have  been  exposed 
to  the  action  of  fire  ;  and  from  this  leading  to  the  top  is  a 
graded  way  ten  feet  in  breadth.  On  examination  it  was 
discovered  that  the  outline  of  the  figure  was  composed  of 
stones  of  considerable  size,  upon  which  the  superstructure  had 
been  modelled  in  fine  clay. 

Antiquity. — There  are  methods  of  determining  the 
antiquity  of  these  mounds.  Mr.  E.  G,  Squier  has  pointed 
out  three  facts  which  go  to  prove  that  they  belong  to  a 
distant  period.  1.  None  of  these  ancient  works  occur  on  tlie 
lowest  formed  of  the  river  terraces,  Avhich  mark  the  sub- 
sidence of  the  streams.  As  these  works  are  raised  on  all  the 
others,  it  follows  that  tlie  lowest  terrace  has  been  formed 
since  tlie  works  were  erected.  The  streams  generally  form 
four  terraces,  and  the  period  marked  by  the  lowest  must  bo 
the  longest  because  the  excavating  power  of  such  streams 
grows  less  as  the  channels  grow  dccpw.     'Z.  The  skeletons  of 


TRACES   OF   MAN   IN    AMEKICA.  121 

the  Mound-Builders  arc  found  in  a  condition  of  extreme 
decay.  Only  one  or  two  skeletons  have  been  recovered  in  a 
condition  suitable  for  intelligent  examination.  The  circum- 
stances attending  their  burial  were  unusually  favorable  for 
preserving  them.  The  earth  around  them  has  invariably, 
been  found  wonderfully  compact  and  dry  ;  and  yet,  when 
exhumed,  they  have  been  in -a  decomposed  and  crumbling 
condition.  3.  Their  great  age  is  shown  by  their  relation  to 
the  primeval  forests.  As  the  Mound-Builders  were  a  settled 
agricultural  people,  their  enclosures  and  fields  were  cleared  of 
trees,  and  remained  so  until  deserted.  When  discovered  by 
the  Europeans  these  enclosures  were  covered  by  gigantic 
trees,  some  of  them  eight  hundred  years  old.  The  trees 
which  first  made  their  appearance  Avere  not  the  regular  forest 
trees.  "When  the  first  trees  that  got  possession  of  the  soil  had 
died  away,  they  were  supplanted,  in  many  cases,  by  other 
kinds,  till  at  last,  after  a  great  number  of  centuries,  that 
remarkable  diversity  of  species  characteristic  of  North  Amer- 
ica would  be  established.* 

Dr.  Buchner  assigns  to  them  an  antiquity  of  from  seven 
thousand  to  ten  thousand  years,  f 

Fort  Shelby,  in  Orleans  county.  New  York,  was  carefully 
examined  by  Frank  H.  Gushing,  the  archseologist.  The  fort 
was  found  to  be  composed  of  two  parallel  circular  walls,  with 
a  gateway  in  each.  The  gateway  in  the  outer  wall  fronted 
a  peat-bog,  the  shore  of  which  was  some  ten  feet  distant. 
Within  the  enclosure  he  found  small,  flat,  notched  stones,  used 
for  sinking  fishing-nets.  Into  the  bog  he  sank  a  shaft  to  the 
depth  of  seven  feet,  not  far  from,  the  shore.  At  the  bottom 
of  the  shaft  he  found  the  shells  of  living  species  of  shell-fish. 
The  natural  surroundings  show  that  this  fort  was  built  when 
the  peat-bog  was  a  lake.  This  is  further  confirmed  by  the 
fact  that  all  ancient  works  are  erected  near  a  permanent 
supply  of  water.  The  nearest  permanent  supply  of  water  is 
Oak  Orchard  Creek,  one  and   one-half  mile  distant.     The 

*  "  Ancient  Monuments,"  p  o04.         t  Buchner,  p.   35. 
G 


122  ANTIQUITY    OF    MAN. 

formation    of    this  peat   would    require  not   less   than  four 
thousand  years,  and  more  probably  twice  that  number. 

The  Mound-Builders  must  have  remained  a  very  long 
time.  These  works  were  formed  gradually,  and  the  popula- 
tion extended  slowly  toward  the  North.  Their  corn-fields, 
by  their  raised  condition,  show  many  successive  years  of 
usage. 

Note  A. — In  reference  to  the  fossil  liuinan  bones  from  Florida 
Count  L.  F.  Pourtalcs  says:  "The  human  jaw  and  other  bones, 
found  in  Florida  by  myself  in  1848,  were  not  in  a  coral  formation,  but 
in  a  fresh-water  sandstone  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Monroe,  associated 
with  fresh-water  shells  of  species  still  living  in  the  lake,  {Paludina, 
AmpuUaria,  etc.)  No  date  can  be  assigned  to  the  formation  of  that 
deposit,  at  least  from  present  observation." — American  Naturalist,  vol. 
11  ,  p.  44S. 

Note  B. — Besides  the  evidences  already  enumerated.  Col.  Charles 
Whittlesey  gives  the  following:  1.  Three  skeletons  of  Indians  in  a 
shelter  cave  near  Elyria,  O.,  were  found  four  feet  below  the  surface, 
resting  upon  the  original  floor  of  the  cave,  upon  which  were  also  char- 
coal, ashes,  and  the  remains  of  existing  animals;  estimated  age,  two 
thousand  years.  2.  Several  human  skeletons  were  found  in  a  cave  near 
Louisville,  Ky.,  cemented  into  a  breccia.  They  were  discovered  in 
constructing  the  reservoir  in  1853.  3.  A  log,  worn  by  the  feet  of  man, 
was  found  in  the  muck  bed  at  High  Rock  Spring,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  at 
a  depth  of  nine  feet  beneath  the  cave,  and  estimated  by  Dr.  Henry 
McGuire  to  be  5,470  years  old.  It  was  discovered  in  18GG.  4.  Mr. 
Koch  claims  to  have  found  an  arrow  head  fifteen  feet  below  the  skele- 
ton of  the  Maatodon  Ohioensis  from  the  recent  alluvium  of  the  Pomme 
de  Terre  River,  Mo.,  and  now  in  the  British  Museum.  His  statement 
was,  however,  contradicted  by  one  of  the  men  who  assisted  him  in  ex- 
huming the  skeleton.  5.  Dr.  Holmes,  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  found  pot- 
tery at  the  base  of  a  peat  bog,  on  the  banks  of  the  Ashley  River,  in 
close  connection  with  the  remains  of  the  Mastodon  and  Megatherium. 
6.  Col.  Wliittlescy,  in  1838,  found  fire-hearths  in  the  ancient  alluvium 
of  the  Ohio,  at  Portsmouth,  O.,  at  a  depth  of  twenty  feet,  and  beneath 
the  works  of  the  Mound-Buiftlers.— Co^.  Whittlesey  before  tlie  Amencan 
Association,  in  1868. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

WRITTEN    HISTORY. 

It  is  not  generally  known  that  Avritten  history  extends  so 
far  back  as  to  make  worthless  tlie  present  system  of  chro- 
nology.    The  mighty  empires  of  antiquity  must  have  been  a 
mystery  to  many  a  thoughtful  mind.     As  far  back  as  history 
will  carry  us  Ave  not  only  behold  the  world  teeming  with  her 
millions  of  people,  but  also  nations  rising  and  empires  crum- 
bling.    Eollin  felt  the  difficulties  of  the  chronology  which 
hampered  him.     He  says  tlie  Assyrian  empire  was  founded 
by  Nimrod  eighteen  hundred  years  after  the  creation  of  man, 
or  two  hundred  and  twenty-four  years  after  the  Deluge,  or 
one  hundred  and  twenty-six  years  before  the  death  of  Noah. 
Nimrod  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ninus,  who  received  pow- 
erful succor  from  the  Arabians,  and  extended  his  conquests 
from  Egypt  as  far  as  India  and  Bactriana.     Ninus  enlarged 
his  capital  to  sixty  miles  in  circumference,  built  the  walls 
to  the  heisfht  of  one  hundred  feet,  and  so  broad  that  three 
chariots  could  go  abreast  upon  them  witli  ease,  and  fortified 
and   adorned  them  with  one  thousand  five  hundred  towers 
two  hundred   feet  high.     After  he  had  finished  this  prodi- 
gious work  he   led  against  the  Bactrians  one  million  seven 
hundred  thousand  foot,  two  hundred  thousand  horse,  besides 
four  hundred  vessels  well  equipped  and  provided.     Ajfter  his 
death,  Semiramis,    his    wife,    ascended    the    throne.       She 
enlarged  her  dominions  by  the  conquest  of  a  great  part  of 
Ethiopia.     Then  she  led  her  army  of  three  million  foot  and 
five  hundred  thousand  horse,  besides  the  camels  and  cliariots 
of  war,  into  India,  where  she  suffered  a  severe  defeat.     After 


VZi  ANTIQUITY    OF   MAN. 

making  these  statements,  Rollin  says,  "  I  must  own  I  am 
somewliat  puzzled  with  a  difficulty  which  may  be  raised 
against  the  extraordinary  things  related  of  Xinus  and  Semir- 
amis,  as  they  do  not  seem  to  agree  with  the  times  so  near  the 
Deluge  :  I  mean,  such  vast  armies,  such  a  numerous  cavalry, 
so  many  chariots  armed  with  scythes,  and  such  immense 
treasures  of  gold  and  silver ;  .  .  .  and  the  magnificence 
of  the  buildings,  ascribed  to  them."*  The  difficulties  pre- 
sented to  the  modern  historian  never  would  have  occurred  if 
discredit  had  not  been  thrown  on  the  writings  of  the 
ancients. 

Efjypl. — The  only  history  of  Egypt,  written  in  Greek,  was 
that  of  Manetho,  a  high-priest  of  Heliopolis,  Avho  lived  three 
hundred  years  before  Christ.  Only  fragments  of  this  work 
have  been  preserved.  This  history  is  taken  from  the  ancient 
Egyptian  chronicles,  and  records  a  list  of  thirty  dynasties 
reigning  in  one  city.  His  "  thirty-one  lists  contain  the 
names  of  one  hundred  and  thirteen  kings,  who,  according  to 
them,  reigned  in  Egypt  during  the  space  of  four  thousand 
four  hundred  and  sixty-five  years.'  'f  Dr.  Buchner  says 
Manetho  *' calculates  for  three  hundred  and  seventy-five 
Pharaohs  a  reigning  period  of  six  thousand  one  hundred  and 
seventeen  years,  which  together  with  the  present  era,  makes 
about  eight  thousand  three  hundred  and -thirty  years."  J 
Bayard  Taylor  makes  Manetho  assign  the  first  dynasty  to 
about  the  year  5000  b.  c.§ 

Herodotus  says  the  Egyptians  ''declare  that  from  theij 
first  king  (Mencs)  to  this  last  mentioned  monarch  (Sethos), 
the  priest  of  Vulcan,  was  a  period  of  three  hundred  and  forty- 
one  generations  ;  such,  at  least,  they  say,  was  the  number  both 
of  their  kings  and  of  their  high-priests,  during  this  interval. 
Now  three  hundred  generations  of  men  make  ten  thousand 

*  Hollin,  vol.  i.  p.  138. 

f  Antlions  Classical  Dictionary,  p.  788. 

X  Buchner,  254. 

g  "  New  York  Tribune",  June  6.,  1874. 


WllITTEX    HISTORY.  125 

years,  tlirec  generations  filling  up  the  century ;  and  the 
remaining  forty-oue  generations  make  thirteen  liundred  and 
forty  years.  Thus  the  whole  number  of  years  is  eleven 
thousand  three  hundred  and  forty."  The  priests  '"'led  me 
into  the  imier  sanctuary,  which  is  a  spacious  chamber,  and 
sliowed  me  a  multitude  of  colossal  statues,  in  wood,  which 
they  counted  up,  and  found  to  amount  to  the  exact  number 
they  had  said  ;  the  custom  being  for  every  high-priest  during 
his  life-time  to  set  up  his  statue  in  the  temple.  As  they 
showed  me  the  figures  and  reckoned  them  up,  they  assured 
me  that  each  was  the  son  of  the  one  preceding  him  ;  and 
this  they  repeated  throughout  the  whole  line,  beginning  with 
the  representation  of  the  priest  last  deceased,  and  continuing 
till  they  had  completed  the  series."*  From  the  time  of 
Sethos,  the  priest  of  Vulcan,  to  the  burning  of  the  temple  of 
Delphi,  was  one  hundred  and  twenty-two  years.  The  temple 
was  burned  r..  c.  548.  Tlie  period  Avhich,  then,  has  elapsed 
from  Sethos  to  the  present  (1875)  is  two  thousand  five 
hundred  and  forty-five  years.  Adding  this  to  the  time  of 
Alenes  we  have  the  whole  period  covering  thirteen  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  eighty-five  years.  But  if  the  generation 
be  reduced  to  twenty  years  then  the  period  from  Menea 
to  the  present  is  nine  thousand  three  hundred  and  sixty- 
five  years. 

The  recent  explorations  made  by  Mariette  among  the 
archives  of  Egypt  have  comfirmed  the  testimony  of  Mano- 
tho.  The  names  of  the  kings,  their  order  of  succession, 
and  the  length  of  their  reigns  correspond  with  Manetho's 
table.  These  discoveries  not  only  testify  to  the  great  an- 
tiquity of  the  empire,  but  also  throw  light  on  the  nation, 
its  manners,  and  customs.  There  were  found  stools,  cane- 
bottomed  chairs,  work-boxes,  nets,  knives,  needles,  toilet 
ornaments,  earthenware,  seeds,  eggs,  bread,  straw  baskets, 
a  child's  plaything,  paint  boxes,  with  colors  and  brushes, 
etc.,  from  three  thousand  to  six  thousand  years  old.     There 

*  Rawlinson's  Herodotus,  vol.  ii.  p.  189 


12G  ANTIQUITY   OF   MAN. 

were  also  fouiul  the  jewels  of  Queen  Aali-hotep,  who  lived 
1700  15.  c,  consisting  of  exquisite  chains,  diadems,  ear- 
rings, and  In-acclets,  which  no  modern  queen  Avould  hesi- 
tate to  wear. 

These  statements  arc  still  further  confirmed  by  the  tes- 
timony of  geology.  In  the  year  1850  borings  were  com- 
menced in  the  mud  deposit  of  the  Nile.  The  most  important 
results  were  obtained  from  an  excavation  and  boring  made 
near  the  base  of  the  pedestal  of  the  statue  of  Eameses  at  Mem- 
phis, the  middle  of  whose  reign,  according  to  Lepsius,  was  13G1 
B.  C.  Assuming  with  Mr.  Horner  that  the  lower  part  of  the 
platform  or  foundation  was  fourteen  and  three-fourths  inches 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  or  alluvial  flat,  at  the  time  it 
was  laid,  there  had  been  formed  between  that  jieriod  and  the 
year  a.  d.  1850,  or  during  the  space  of  three  thousand  two 
hundred  and  eleven  years,  a  deposit  of  nine  feet  four  inches 
round  the  pedestal,  which  gives  a  mean  increase  of  three  and 
one-half  inches  in  a  hundred  years.  It  was  further  ascer- 
tained, by  sinking  a  shaft  near  the  pedestal,  and  by  boring  in 
the  same  place,  that  below  the  level  of  the  old  plain  the 
thickness  of  old  Nile  mud  resting  on  desert  sand  amounted 
to  thirty-two  feet ;  and  it  was  therefore  inferred  by  Mr. 
Horner  that  the  lowest  layer  (in  which  a  fragment  of  burned 
brick  Avas  found)  was  more  than  thirteen  thousand  years  old, 
or  was  deposited  thirteen  thousand  four  hundred  and  ninety- 
six  years  before  the  year  1850."*  Other  excavations  were 
made  on  a  large  scale.  In  the  first  sixteen  or  twenty-four  feet 
there  were  dug  up  jars,  vases,  pots,  a  small  human  figure 
in  burnt  clay,  a  copper  knife,  and  other  articles  entire. 
When  the  water  soaking  through  from  the  Nile  hindered  the 
progress  of  the  workmen,  boring  was  resorted  to,  and  almost 
everyAvhere,  and  from  all  dejjths,  even  where  they  sank  sixty 
feet  below  the  surface,  pieces  of  burned  brick  and  pottery 
were  extracted,  f 

*  "  Principles  of  Geology,"  vo",   i.  p.  432 
\  "  Antiquity  of  Man,"  p.  30. 


"WRITTEN   HISTORY.  12  T 

Troy. — Troy,  made  immortal  by  the  jooem  of  Homor,  has 
recently  been  uncovered  to  the  eye  of  man,  and  fresh  lustre  has 
been  thrown  over  the  ancient  bard.     The  descriptions  of  Troy 
given  by  Homer,  tliought  to  have  been  a  mere  work  of  imagi- 
nation, arc  now  shown  to  be  accurate,  and  also  that  lie  must 
have  been  there.     For  tlie  re-discovery  and  unearthing  of  Troy 
the  world  is  indebted  to  Dr.  Schlieman,     Four  buried  cities 
superimposed   one   above   the   other  were   discovered.     The 
third  city,  below  the  surface,  is  ancient  Troy.     The  house  of 
Priam,  the  Scsean  gate,  the  massive  walls  and  pavements,  still 
remained.     In  the  house  of  Priam  Dr.  Schlieman  found  a 
great  mass  of  human  bones,  among  them  two  entire  skeletons 
v/earing  copper  helmets,  a  silver  vase,  two  diadems  of  golden 
scales,   a   golden   coronet,    fifty-six    golden   car-rings,    eight 
thousand  seven  hundred  and   fifty  gold  rings,  buttons,  etc. 
Immediately  beside  the  house  of  Priam,  closely  packed  in  a 
quadrangular  space,  surrounded  with  ashes,  and   near  by  a 
copper  key,  were  a  large  oval  shield  of  copper,  a  copper  pot, 
a   copper   tray,  a  golden   flagon,  weighing  nearly  a  pound, 
several  silver  vases,  a  silver  bowl,  fourteen  copper  lance-heads, 
fourteen  copper  battle-axes,  two  large  two-edged  daggers,  a 
part  of   a  sword,  and  some  smaller  articles.     The  value,  by 
weight  alone,  of  all  the  gold  and  silver  found  in  or  near  the 
house   of   Priam,   has    been   estimated   at   twenty   thousand 
dollars.     During  the  excavations,  over  one  hundred  thousand 
articles  were   found.     Every   mark   showed   that   Troy   had 
been   suddenly   destroyed.     Conflagration,  ruin,   the   imple- 
ments and  the  effects  of  war  were  visible.     Even  the  brave 
warriors  who  fell  while  defending  the  palace  of  their  king 
have  not  yet  wholly  crumbled  into  dust. 

The  four  cities  may  be  thus  summed  up  :  The  topmost 
stratum  is  six  and  one-half  feet  in  depth  and  cover's  the 
Grecian  settlement  which  was  established  about  the  year 
700  B.  c.  Beneath  the  Greek  masonry  are  found  the  walla 
of  another  city,  built  of  earth  and  small  stones,  but  tlie 


12S  AXTlCiUlTV    Ol'    MAX. 

abundance  of  wood-aslics  sliows  that  tlic  city — or  the  succes- 
sive cities — was  chiefly  built  of  wood 

The  ruins  of  Troy,  next  in  succession,  are  from  twenty- 
three  and  one-half  to  thirty-three  and  one-half  feet  from  the 
surface,  and  form  a  stratum  averaging  ten  feet  in  thickness. 
Troy  is  supposed  to  have  been  founded  about  1400  b.  c, 
and  its  fall  and  destruction  by  lire  to  have  occurred  about 
1100  B.  c. 

Under  Troy  there  is  a  fourth  stratum  of  ruins,  varying 
from  thirteen  to  twenty  feet  in  depth.  The  most  remarka- 
ble feature  of  these  oldest  ruins  is  the  superiority  of  the  terrji- 
cotta  articles.  These  vases  are  of  a  shining  black,  red,  or 
brown  color,  with  ornamental  patterns,  first  cut  into  the 
pottery,  and  tlien  filled  with  a  white  substance.  The  age  of 
these  ruins  "  is  a  matter  of  pure  conjecture,  since  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  the  city's  history — frequent  destruction  and  rebuild- 
ing— would  have  the  same  practical  effect,  or  very  nearly  so, 
as  a  long  interval  of  time.  AVe  have  anywhere  from  two  to 
five  thousand  years  before  Christ  as  the  date  of  the  founda- 
tion of  the /rsif  Troy."  * 

Glmldea. — Berosus,  a  Chaldean  priest  of  Belus,  nearly 
three  hundred  years  before  Christ,  wrote  in  Greek  a  regular 
history  of  Chaldea,  in  nine  books.  The  materials  for  this  work 
were  suj^plied  by  the  archives  then  existing  in  the  Temple  of 
Belus  at  Babylon.  The  work  was  particularly  devoted  to  a  his- 
tory of  the  kingdom  prior  to  the  beginning  of  the  Assyrian 
empire.  Fragments  of  this  work  have  been  preserved  by 
Josephus  and  Eusebius.  After  describing  the  cyclical  ages  of 
ten  fabulous  kings,  he  then  comes  to  what  he  considers  true 
history,  and  enumerates  one  hundred  and  sixty-three  kings 
of  Chaldea,  who  reigned  successively  from  the  time  when  the 
list  begins  to  the  rise  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  al)out  the  year 
1237  B.  c.  Berosus  begins  with  a  dynasty  of  eighty-six  kings, 
and  gives  their  names,  which  are  now  lost.     lie  liad  no  chro- 

♦  Bayard  Taylor  ia  "  New  York  Tribune,  Extra,"  No.  15. 


WUITTEX   niSTORY.  139 

nology  of  their  time,  but  subjected  it  to  a  cyclical  calculation. 
His  list,  which  has  so  far  escaped  the  lapse  of  time  and  the 
change  of  hands,  is  thus  preserved  : 

First,  eighty-six  Chaldean  kings ;  history  and  timo 
mythical. 

Second,  eight  Median  kings  ;  during  two  hundred  and 
twenty- four  years. 

Third,  eleven  kings. 

Fourth,  forty-nine  Chaldean  kings. 

Fifth,  nine  Arabian  kings ;  during  two  hundred  and 
forty-five  years. 

The  rulers  of  the  Assyrian  empire  were  next  added,  as  a 
sixth  dynasty.  The  blank  spaces  in  the  list  are  doubtless 
tlie  result  of  careless  copying,  or  caused  by  imperfections  in 
the  manuscripts.  In  order  to  make  the  old  kingdom  of 
Chaldea  begin  about  the  year  2234  b.  c.  the  first  eighty-six 
kings  of  Berosus  have  been  struck  out  as  fabulous,  and  the 
Median  dynasty  regarded  as  spurious,  and  this  without  any 
show  of  reason,  save  that  it  docs  not  agree  with  the  chro- 
nology which  the  mutilators  of  history  accejot. 

Investigations  which  have  been  made  among  the  ruined 
cities  of  Chaldea  have  given  great  weight  to  the  authority  of 
Berosus,  and  are  tending  to  the  confirmation  of  liis  history. 
In  Susiana  there  was  found  a  Cushite  inscription,  mentioned 
by  Eawlinson,  in  which  there  is  a  date  that  goes  back  nearly  to 
the  year  3200  b.  c.  The  testimony  of  the  records  disentombed 
from  the  ruins,  as  well  as  Berosus,  contradicts  tlie  prevalent 
hypothesis  that  the  Magian  or  Aryan  race  occupied  the 
country  before  the  Cushites.  These  ruins  also  '^  confirm 
Berosus  by  showing  that  Chaldea  was  a  cultivated  and  flour- 
ishing nation,  governed  by  kings,  long  previous  to  the  time 
when  the  city  known  to  us  as  Babylon  rose  to  eminence  and 
became  the  seat  of  empire.  During  that  long  time  there 
were  several  great  political  ejoochs  in  the  history  of  the 
country,  representing  important  dynastic  changes,  and  several 
transfers  of  the  scat  of  government  from  one  city  to  another. 
G* 


130  ANTIQUITY    OF    MAX. 

Such  epochs  in  ClKildeaii  liistory  :irc  indicated  by  the  list  of 
Berosus,"  * 

By  this  people,  the  science  of  astronomy  was  -well  under 
stood.  "  Callisthencs,  who  accompanied  Alexander  to  Baby 
Ion,  sent  to  Aristotle  from  that  capital  a  series  of  astronomica. 
observations  Avhich  lie  liad  found  isreserved  there,  extendin<j 
back  to  a  jieriod  of  one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  three 
years  from  Alexander's  conquest  of  the  city.  .  .  These  ob- 
servations were  recorded  in  tablets  of  baked  clay.  .  .  They 
must  have  extended,  according  to  Simplicius,  as  far  back  aa 
2234  B.  c,  and  would  seem  to  have  been  commenced  and 
carried  on  for  many  centuries  by  the  jirimitive  Chaldean 
peojile."  A  lens  of  considerable  power,  used  for  either  magni- 
fpng  or  condensing  the  rays  of  the  sun,  was  found  at  Baby- 
lon, in  a  chamber  of  tlie  ruin  called  Ximroud.  f 

,Cliina. — Litse,  an  eminent  Chinese  historian,  relates  that 
there  were  long. periods  of  time  when  the  Chinese  kingdom 
flourished,  the  chronology  of  v.hich  is  not  preserved,  although 
there  is  recorded  some   knowledire  of  the  rulers.     One  of 

O 

these  rulers  promoted  the  study  of  astronomy.  Xext  come 
the  historical  epochs.  During  the  first,  astronomy,  religion, 
and  the  art  of  writing  vvere  cultivated.  Tliis  was  a  great 
epoch,  and  ruled  by  fifteen  successive  kings.  In  the  second 
epoch,  agriculture  and  medical  science  were  promoted.  In 
the  third,  the  magnetic  needle  was  discovered,  the  written 
characters  improved,  civilized  life  advanced,  and  a  great 
revolt  suppressed.  In  the  fourth  and  fifth  epochs,  the 
descendants  of  the  previous  ruler  reigned.  Next  cam.e  the 
period  of  Yao  and  Shin.  After  this  the  period  of  the 
"Imperial  Dynasties,"  which  began  Avitli  the  Emperor  Yu, 
who  lived  two  thousand  two  hundred  years  B.  c.  The  his- 
torical work  of  Sse-ma-thi-an  narrates  events  chronolo2:icallv 
from  the  year  2G37  b.  c.  to  122  B.  c.J 

Mexico. — It  is  known  that  books   or  manuscripts  wero 

•  "  Pre-IIisloric  Nations,"  p.  190.  f  Rid.  pp.  178, 175. 

X  "  Pre-IIistoric  Nations,"  p.  37. 


WRITTEN    IIISTOKY.  131 

abundant  among  tlie  ancient  Mexicans.  There  were  persons 
duly  appointed  to  keep  a  chronicle  of  the  passing  eyents.  Las 
Casas,  who  saw  the  books,  says  they  gave  the  origin  of  the 
kingdom  as  well  as  the  founders  of  tlie  different  cities,  and 
every  different  thing  which  transpired  tliat  was  worthy  of 
note  :  such  as  tlie  history  of  kings,  their  modes  of  election 
and  succession  ;  their  labors,  actions,  wars,  memorable  deeds, 
good  or  bad ;  the  heroes  of  other  days,  their  triumphs  and 
defeats.  These  chroniclers  calculated  the  days,  months,  and 
years.  Nearly  all  these  books  were  destroyed  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  the  monks,  and  by  the  more  ignorant  and  fanatical 
Spanish  priests.  A  vast  collection  of  these  old  writings 
were  burned  in  one  conflagration  by  order  of  Bishop  Zumar- 
raga.  A  few  of  the  works,  however,  escaped,  but  none  of  the 
great  books  of  annals  described  by  Las  Casas.*  Thus 
Mexico  must  be  left  to  the  archaeologist  unassisted  by  written 
history. 

•  "  Ancient  America,"  p.  187. 


CHAPTER  XVL 

LAXGUAGE. 

The  origin  and  growth  of  language  evidently  afford  a 
great  field  for  study,  in  not  only  tracing  the  development  of 
civilization,  but  also  in  confirming  the  testimony  of  the 
ancients  and  the  conclusions  of  the  geologists.  If  the  unitv 
of  language  conld  not  be  established,  there  would  still  be  left 
a  field  so  great  as  would  not  lessen  the  interest  or  the  imjior- 
tance  of  the  subject.  But  a  new  language  cannot  be  formed. 
Por  the  sake  of  convenience  the  many  varieties  of  language 
have  been  grouped  into  three  great  divisions,  i.  e.,  the  Aryan, 
the  Semitic,  and  the  Turanian.  "The  English,  together 
with  all  tlio  Teutonic  languages  of  the  Continent,  Celtic, 
Slavonic,  Greek,  Latin  with  its  modern  oSshoots,  sncli  as 
Frcncli  and  Italian,  Persian,  and  Sanskrit,  arc  so  many 
varieties  of  one  common  type  of  speech  :  that  Sanskrit,  the 
aucient  language  of  the  Veda,  is  no  more  distinct  from  the 
( i  reck  of  Homer,  .  .  or  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  of  Alfred, 
than  Frencli  is  from  Italian.  All  these  languages  together 
form  one  family,  one  whole,  in  which  every  member  shares 
certain  features  in  common  with  all  the  rest,  and  is  at  the 
same  time  distinguished  from  the  rest  by  certain  features 
peculiarly  its  own.  The  same  aj)plics  to  the  Semitic  family 
which  comprises,  as  its  most  important  members,  the  Hebrew 
of  the  Old  Testament,  the  Arabic  of  the  Koran,  and  the 
ancient  languages  on  the  monuments  of  Pha3nicia  and  Car- 
thage, of  Babylon  and  Assyria.  These  languages,  again, 
form  a  compact  family,  and  ditfer  entirely  from  the  otlicr 
family,  which  we  called  Aryan  or  Indo-European.     The  third 


LANGUAGE.  133 

group  of  languages,  for  we  can  hardly  call  it  a  family,  com- 
prises most  of  the  reiaaining  lauguages  of  Asia,  and  counts 
among  its  principal  members  the  Tungusic,  Mongolic, 
Turkic,  Samoyedic,  and  Finnic,  together  with  the  languages 
of  Siam,  the  Malay  Islands,  Thibet,  and  Southern  India. 
Lastly,  the  Chinese  language  stands  by  itself  as  monosyllabic, 
the  only  remnant  of  the  earliest  formation  of  human  speech."  * 

Anterior  to  these  three  families  there  was  still  another 
from  wliich  these  were  derived.  It  contained  the  germs  of 
nil  the  Turanian,  as  Avell  as  the  Aryan  and  Semitic  forms  of 
gpeech.  It  belongs  to  that  period  in  the  history  of  man 
when  ideas  "\tere  first  clothed  in  language,  and  has  been 
called  the  Rhematic  Period,  f 

As  regards  the  origin  of  language,  three  theories  have  been 
proposed  :  the  Interjectional,  the  Imitation,  and  the  Ivoot. 
The  first  supposes  that  the  beginnings  of  human  speech  were 
the  cries  aiid  sounds  which  are  uttered  when  a  human  being 
is  affected  by  fear,  pain,  or  joy.  The  second  supposes  "  that 
man,  being  as  yet  mute,  heard  the  voices  of  birds,  and  dogs, 
and  cows,  the  thunder  of  the  clouds,  the  roaring  of  the  sea, 
the  rustling  of  the  forest,  the  murmurs  of  the  brook,  and  the 
whisper  of  the  breeze.  He  tried  to  imitate  these  sounds,  and 
finding  his  mimicking  cries  useful  as  signs  of  the  objects 
from  which  they  proceeded,  he  followed  up  the  idea  and 
elaborated  language."  The  third  theory,  advanced  by  Max 
Miiller,  is  that  language  followed  as  the  outward  sign  and 
realization  of  that  inward  faculty  which  is  called  the  faculty 
of  abstraction,  and  the  roots,  to  which  language  may  be 
reduced,  express  a  general,  not  an  individual  idea.  J 

There  is  more  or  less  truth  in  all  these  theories.  At 
the  very  earliest  period  man  must  have  possessed  some 
method  of  communicating  his  wants  or  ideas.  The  casual 
observer  has  noticed  that  animals  have  methods  of  communi- 

*  "  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,"  vol.  i.  p.  21. 

•f-  Ihid.  vo].  ii.  p.  8. 

}  Wake"s  "  Chapters  on  Man,"  p.  33. 


134  AXTllH'I'lV    Ul-    MAN. 

eating  witli  one  anotlicr.  It  is  not  improbable  tiiat  at  the 
very  earliest  period  man's  only  mode  was  that  of  cries  and 
signs.  This  may  have  lasted  for  a  very  long  time.  Then  the 
mimicking  commenced.  Next,  comparison  was  resorted  to 
when  he  had  so  far  advanced  as  to  describe  his  thouglits 
and,  finally,  from  these  various  beginnings,  from  necessary 
or  forced  improvement,  his  ideas  were  expressed  in  root 
words.* 

Instead  of  new  lanouaoes  orioinatino",  old  lani;ua<i"e3 
change.  They  are  mutable,  and  from  them  new  dialects  are 
produced.  In  the  history  of  man  there  never  has  been  a 
new  language,  and  the  languages  .now  spoken  are  but  the 
modifications  of  old  ones.  The  words  now  used  by  all  people, 
however  broken  up,  crushed,  or  put  together,  are  the  same 
materials  as  were  used  in  the  beginnings  of  speech.  New 
words  are  but  old  words  ;  old  in  their  material  elements, 
though  they  may  be  renewed  and  dressed  in  various  forms, 
"  The  modifiability  of  the  language  and  its  tendency  to  vary 
never  cease,  so  that  it  would  readily  run  into  new  dialects  and 
modes  of  pronunciation  if  there  were  no  communication  with 
the  mother  country  direct  or  indirect.  In  this  respect  its 
mutability  will  resemble  that  of  species,  and  it  can  no  more 
spring  up  independently  in  separate  districts  than  species 
can,  assuming  that  these  last  are  all  of  derivative  origin."  f 

*  "  Diodorus  Siculus,  Lucretius,  Horace,  and  many  other  Greek  and 
Roman  writers,  consider  language  as  one  of  the  arts  invented  by  man. 
The  first  men,  say  they,  lived,  for  some  time  in  woods  and  caves,  after 
the  manner  of  beasts,  uttering  only  confused  and  indistinct  noises,  till, 
associating  for  mutual  assistance,  they  came  by  degrees  to  use  articu- 
late sounds  mutually  agreed  upon,  for  the  arbitrary  signs  or  marks  of 
those  ideas  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker  which  he  wanted  to  communi- 
cate to  the  hearer.  This  opinion  sprung  from  the  atomic  cosmogony 
which  was  framed  by  Mochus,  the  Phoenician,  and  afterward  im- 
proved by  Democritus  and  Epicurus." — Pouchet's  Plurality  of  the 
Iluman  Race,  p.  142. 

f  "  Principles  of  Geology,"  vol.  ii.  p.  475.  "  It  is  generally  acknowl- 
edged that  all  organic  beings  have  been  formed  on  two  great  laws — 
Unity  of  Type,  and  the  Conditions  of  Existence.     By  unity  of  type  ia 


LAKGUAGE.  135 

Tliere  are  from  four  thousand  to  six  tliousand  living  lan- 
guages. The  number  of  unspoken  languages  is  not  known. 
Thei]-  growth  has  required  ages,  and  during  their  develop- 
ment many  a  parent  stalk  has  ceased  to  exist.  The  changes 
in  a  language  are  slowly  produced.  It  requires  centuries  to 
so  far  leave  a  language  as  to  need  an  interpreter  in  order  to 
understand  it.  Some  idea  of  this  slow  change  may  be 
gained  by  com2"»aring  the  writings  in  the  English  language  of 
different  periods.  In  the  year  13G2  apj)eared  a  poem  called 
"  Piers  rioughman's  Creed,"  which  begins  as  follows  : 

"  In  a  summer  season, 
When  soft  was  the  sun, 
I  shoop  me  into  shrowds  * 
As  I  a  sheep  |  were  ; 
In  habit  as  an  hermit 
Unholy  of  werkes. 
Went  wide  in  this  world 
Wonders  to  hear ; 
Ac:j:  on  a  May  morwening 
On  Malvern  hills 
Me  befel  a  ferly,§ 
Of  fairy  me  thought."  Etc. 

"Written  language  is  more  permanent  than  spoken,  but  the 
process  of  either  is  necessarily  slow.  When  it  is  remembered 
that  a  language  has  been  derived  successively  through 
numerous  others,  no  special  limit  or  time  can  be  given, 
although  a  very  long  period  would  be  required.  Tlie  usually 
accepted  chronology  would  not  allow  sufficient  time  for  the 
diversity  in  the  Semitic  family,  to  say  nothing  of  the  time 
required  for  the  development  of  the  three  general  classes. 

meant  that  fundamental  agreement  in  structure  which  we  see  in  organic 
beings  of  the  same  class,  and  which  is  quite  independent  of  their 
habits  of  life.  On  my  theory,  unity  of  type  is  explained  by  unity  of 
descent." — Darwin's  Origin  of  Species,  p.  200. 

*  I  put  myself  into  clothes.      f  Shepherd.      %  And.      §  Wonder. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

UXITT   OF   THE   HUMAN    RACE. 

The  theory  of  the  unity  of  the  human  race  has  caused  a 
clash  of  opinions  among  men  of  science.  It  has  been  the 
great  battle  field  among  anthropologists,  ethnologists,  geolo- 
gists, philologists,  and  theologists.  Men  of  acknowledged 
ability  have  been  arrayed  on  either  side.  Among  the  fore- 
most in  favor  of  a  diversity  of  origin  have  been  Agassiz,  Sir 
Roderick  I.  Murchison,  Georges  Pouchet,  A.  R.  Wallace,  and 
Schleicher.  But  the  weight  of  evidence  and  authority  is 
most  in  favor  of  the  unity  of  the  human  race. 

The  advocates  of  the  theory  of  the  diversity  of  the  origin 
of  the  human  race  have  advanced  many  objections  against 
the  unity,  and  produced  arguments  in  favor  of  their  opinions. 
These  may  be  summed  up  under  five  heads.  1.  The  anato- 
njical  differences  between  the  different  races,  and  especially 
those  Avhich  distinguish  the  black  and  white.  2.  The  separa- 
tion of  the  races  from  each  other  for  unknown  ages  bv  i^-reat 
oceans,  and  by  formidable  and  almost  impassable  continejital 
barriers.  3.  The  disparity  in  intelligence,  and  the  grades  in 
3ivilization,  4.  A  medium  type  cannot  exist  by  itself, 
except  on  the  condition  of  being  supported  by  tlic  two 
creating  types.  5.  When  two  types  become  united,  two 
phenomena  may  arise  :  a,  Either  one  of  them  will  absorb  the 
other  ;  or  b,  They  may  subsist  simultaneously  in  tlie  midst 
of  a  greater  or  less  number  of  hybrids. 

The  following  answers  may  be  given  to  these  objections, 
or  arguments  :  1.  It  is  just  as  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
man  is  affected,  as  well  as  the  animals,  by  climate,  food,  or 


UXITY    OF   THE    HUMAN    RACE.  137 

peculiar  condition.  It  is  well  known  that  animals  liave 
undergone  more  or  less  change  by  their  situation  or  position. 
Elephants  and  rhinoceroses  are  almost  hairless.  As  certain 
extinct  species,  Avhich  formerly  lived  under  an  arctic  climate, 
were  covered  with  hair  or  long  wool,  it  would  appear  that 
the  present  species  of  both  genera  had  lost  their  hairy 
covering  by  exposure  to  heat.  This  is  confirmed  by  the  fact 
that  the  elephants  of  the  elevated  and  cool  districts  of  India 
are  more  hairy  than  those  on  the  lowlands.*  A  wonderful 
change  is  wrought  by  the  influence  of  climate  on  turkeys. 
In  India  ''it  is  much  degenerated  in  size,  utterly  incapable  of 
rising  on  the  wing,  of  a  black  color,  and  with  long  pendulous 
appendages  over  the  beak,  enormously  developed."  ''In  the 
English  climate  an  individual  Porto  Santo  rabbit  recovered 
the  proper  color  of  its  fur  in  less  than  four  years."  f  Ob- 
ser'vers  are  convinced  that  a  damp  climate  affects  the  growth 
of  the  hair  of  cattle.  The  mountain-breeds  always  differ 
from  the  lowland  breeds ;  in  a  mountainous  country  the 
hind  limbs  would  be  affected  from  exercising  them  more, 
Avhich  would  also  affect  the  pelvis,  and,  then,  from  the  law 
of  homologous  variation,  the  front  limbs  and  head  would 
probably  be  affected.  J  One  of  the  most  marked  distinctions 
in  the  races  of  man  is  that  the  skull  in  some  is  elongated  or 
dolichocephalic,  and  in  others  rounded  or  brachycephalic. 
Mr.  ])arwin  has  observed  that  a  change  takes  place  in  the 
skulls  of  domestic  rabbits  ;  they  become  elongated,  while 
those  of  the  wild  rabbit  are  rounded.  He  took  two  skulls  of 
nearly  equal  breadth,  the  one  from  a  wild  and  the  other 
from  a  large  domestic  rabbit,  the  former  was  only  3.15,  and 
the  latter  4.3  inches  in  length.  Welcker  has  observed  "that 
short  men  incline  more  to  brachycephaly  and  tall  men  to 
dolichocephaly ;  and  tall  men  may  be  compared  with  the 
larger   and  longer-bodied  rabbits,  all   of  which  have  elon- 

*  "  Descent  of  Man,"  vol.  i.  p.  143. 

f  Mivart's  "  Genesis  of  Species,"  p.  114. 

t  "  Origin  of  Species,"  p.  19J. 


VoS  ANTIQUITY    OV    MAX. 

gated  skulls."*  The  argument  from  language  is  of  gi-cat 
weight,  especially  in  considering  the  differences  in  color. 
Professor  Max  Miiller  has  stated  this  clearly  :  ''There  was  a 
time  Avhen  the  ancestors  of  the  Celts,  the  Germans,  the  Sla 
vouians,  the  Greeks  and  Italians,  the  Persians  and  Hindus, 
were  living  together  beneath  the  same  roof.''  "The  evi- 
dence of  lan'gnagc  is  iiTcfragahle,  and  it  is  the  only  evidence 
worth  listening  to  with  regard  to  ante-historical  periods.  It 
would  have  been  next  to  impossible  to  discover  any  traces  oi 
relationship  between  the  swarthy  natives  of  India  and  their 
conquerors,  whether  Alexander  or  Clive,  but  for  the  testi- 
mony borne  by  language."  f  AVhen  the  great  lapse  of  ages  ia 
taken  into  consideration,  since  man  originated,  it  will  be 
seen  that  sufficient  time  is  given  to  produce  the  white,  black, 
yellow,  red,  and  brown  varieties  of  man. 

2.  The  argument  from  geographical  distribution  would 
hardly  seem  valid,  as  it  is  known  that  the  ocean  can  be  and 
has  been  navigated  by  frail  crafts.  Lieutenant  Bligh,  of  the 
ship  Bounty,  in  a  small  boat,  twenty-three  feet  long  from  stem 
to  stern,  deep  laden  with  nineteen  men  and  one  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds  of  bread,  twenty-eight  gallons  of  water,'  twenty 
pounds  of  pork,  etc.,  started  from  the  island  of  Tofoa  (South 
Pacific)  for  the  island  of  Timor,  a  distance  of  three  thousand 
six  hundred  miles.  In  this  voyage  he  encountered  a  boister- 
ous sea,  and  great  perils,  but  finally  reached  his  destination.  J 
When  men  began  to  dwell  on  the  sea-coast  they  made  their 
small  vessels  and  carried  on  a  limited  navigation.  Many  a 
frail  craft  has  been  driven  out  to  sea  with  its  human  freight, 
some  of  which  landed  on  uninhabited  islands.  This  has  often 
happened  among  the  South  Sea  islanders. §     If  it  had  been 

*  ••  Descent  of  Man,"  vol.  i.  p.  142. 

t  "  Chips,"  vol.  i.  pp.  03,  G:^. 

X  Lady  Belcliei's  "  Mutineers  of  the  Bounty,"  p.  61. 

§  "  Captain  Cook  found  on  the  island  of  Wateoo,  three  inhabitanta 
of  Otaheite,  who  had  been  drifted  thither  in  a  canoe,  although  the  dis- 
tance between  the  two  isles  is  five  hundred  and  fifty  miles.     In  1096, 


L'XITY    OF   TIIK    IIUMAX    KACK.  139 

asserted,  a  ic^\^  years  ago,  tliat  man's  distribution  might  haie 
been  partly  cansed  by  the  agency  of  ice,  it  would  have 
received  no  attention.  And  yet,  Captain  Tyson  and  his 
party,  consisting  of  twelve  men,  two  women,  and  five  chil- 
dren, being  a  portion  of  the  crew  of  the  ill-fated  Polaris, 
drifted  about  from  the  loth  of  October,  1872,  to  the  30th  of 
April,  1873,  on  an  ice-floe,  and  in  the  midst  of  an  arctic 
winter.  Besides  the  provisions  saved  from  the  Polaris  they 
subsisted  on  the  flesh  of  seals,  birds,  and  bears  that  they 
were  able  to  kill.  Every  member  of  tliis  party  was  rescued 
off  the  coast  of  Labrador.  It  must  be  further  noticed  that 
the  surface  of  the  earth  was  not  always  the  same.  The 
continents  have  changed  more  or  less,  and  during  these 
changes  man  must  have  become  more  or  less  sei">aratcd. 

3.  In  respect  to  the  disparity  it  may  be  rejolied  that  the 
two  extreme  points  are  observable  in  all  the  nations  of  the 
earth.  Even  in  single  families  there  have  been  those  who 
were  highly  ciiltured  and  refined,  while  other  members  have 
been  very  low  in  organization,  habits,  and  tastes.  In  these 
days  it  is  manifest  that  all  the  races  are  capable  of  a  veiy 
high  degree  of  improvement.  •  On  the  other  hand,  nations 
have  retrograded.  The  ignorant,  wretched  nomads  who 
pitch  their  tents  amid  the  ruins  of  Babylon,  are  the  descend- 
ants of  the  ancient  mixed   races  who  successively  occupied 

two  canoes,  containing  thirty  persons,  who  had  left  Ancorso,  were 
thrown  by  contrary  winds  and  storms  on  the  Island  of  Samar,  one  of 
ilie  Philippines,  at  a  distance  of  ciglit  hundred  miles.  In  1721,  two 
canoes,  one  of  wliich  contained  twenty-four,  and  the  other  sis  persons, 
men,  women,  and  children,  were  drifted  from  an  island  called  Far- 
roilep  to  the  island  of  Gualiam,  one  of  the  Marians,  a  distance  of  two 
hundred  miles."  Eadu,  a  native  of  Ulea,  and  three  of  his  country- 
men, while  sailing  in  a  boat,  were  driven  out  to  sea  by  a  violent  storm, 
and  drifted  about  the  sea  for  eight  months,  subsisting  entirely  on 
the  produce  of  the  sea,  and  finally  were  picked  up  in  an  insensible 
condition  by  the  inhabitants  of  Auf  (Caroline  Isles)  one  thousand 
five  hundred  miles  distant  from  his  native  isle. — Principles  of  Qeology, 
vol.  ii.  p.  472. 


MU  ANTIQIITV    or    MAX. 

Mcsoi)otaiin:i :  tlie  Assyrians,  Ixibyloniaus,  Mcdcs,  and  Per- 
sians, who  were  ruled  by  siicli  renowned  monarchs  as 
Shalmanoscr,  Nebuchadnezzar,  Cyrus,  and  others.  The  wild 
marauding  Arabs  are  tlie  descendants  of  a  people  who 
invented  algebra  and  introduced  the  numerals.  So  the  list 
might  be  extended. 

•i  and  5.  The  fourth  and  fifth  amonnt  to  the  assumption 
that  no  race  will  amalgamate  with  another.  The  statements 
embraced  under  these  two  heads  are  not  warranted  by  facts. 
Dr.  Prichard  says,  "  Mankind  of  all  races  and  varieties  are 
equally  capable  of  propagating  their  offspring  by  intermar- 
riages, and  that  such  connections  are  equally  prolific  whether 
contracted  between  individuals  of  the  same  or  of  the  most 
dissimilar  varieties.  If  there  is  any, difference,  it  is  probably 
in  favor  of  the  latter."  *  lie  then  gives  a  short  account  of 
several  examples  of  new  or  intermediate  stocks  which  have 
been  produced  and  multiplied.  They  are  Griquas,  descended 
from  the  Dutch  and  Hottentots,  who  occupy  the  banks  of 
the  Orange  Eiver,  and  numl)er  five  thousand  souls  ;  the 
Cafusos  of  Brazil,  a  mixture  of  native  Americans  and  African 
lN"egToes  ;  the  Papuas  of  the  island  of  New  Guinea,  a  mix- 
ture between  the  Malays  and  Negroes.  One  of  tlic  best 
examples  yet  furnished  is  that  of  the  Pitcairn  Islanders. 
This  colony  originated  in  this  way  :  The  British  government 
had  sent  a  vessel,  called  the  Bounty,  commanded  by  Lieu- 
tenant Bligh,  to  gather  bread-fruit  trees  at  Otaheite  and 
introduce  them  into  the  West  Indies.  Bligh  was  an  over- 
bearing, tyrannical,  and  cruel  officer.  Driven  to  fury,  and 
out  of  patience  with  the  superior  officer,  Mr.  Fletcher  Chris- 
tian and  others  mutinied,  and  turned  Bligh  and  his  eighteen 
companions  adi'ift.  The  mutineers  proceeded  to  Tahiti  ;  here 
they  took  on  board  provisions  and  live  stock,  nine  Tahitian 
men,  twelve  women,  and  eight  boys  who  had  secreted  them- 
Belves,  and  then  proceeded  to  Toubouai,  Avhere  they  founded  a 
settlement.     Owing  to  dissensions  the  colony  broke  up  and 

*  "  Natural  History  of  Man,"  vol.  i.  p.  16. 


rVITY    OF    THE    IIUMAX    RACE.  141 

removed  to  Taliiti.  But  Mr.  Christian,  with  eight  other  of 
the  mutineers,  three  Tonbouaians,  three  Tahitian  men  with 
their  wives,  and  one  cliild,  and  nine  other  women,  left  in  the 
Bounty  and  landed  at  Pitcairn's  Island,  and  there  burned  the 
Bounty  on  the  23d  of  January,  1790.  In  less  than  nine 
years  afterward,  owing  to  strifes,  tiie  men  were  reduced  to 
two  in  number,  both  whites,  and  one  of  them  died  the  suc- 
ceeding year.  In  tlie  year  1808  the  American  ship  Toi)az 
touched  at  the  island.  Tlie  colonists  then  numbered  thirty- 
five.  In  185G  the}'  had  increased  to  tlie  number  of  one 
hundred  and  ninety,  and  as  the  produce  of  the  island  was 
barely  sufficient  to  support  tlicm  they  were  removed  by  the 
British  government  to  Norfolk  Island.  There  are  only 
eight  surnames  among  them — five  of  the  Bounty  stock  and 
three  new-comers.  They  are  a  fine,  healthy  race  of  people  ; 
the  men  of  a  bright  copper  color,  but  the  women  are  scarcely 
distinguishable  from  English  women.  If  reports  be  true 
concerning  them,  they  are  the  most  remarkable  people  on 
earth.  They  never  allow  the  sun  to  go  down  on  their  wrath, 
and  are  noted  for  their  honesty,  truth,  chastity,  industry, 
benevolence,  reverence,  simplicity,  and  all  tlie  virtues  which 
combine  to  form  true  religion. 

The  law  of  hybridity,  wliicli  has  been  so  strongly  urged 
against  tlie  unity  of  the  race,  has  proved  an  argument  in 
favor.  The  offspring  of  birds  as  much  alike  as  the  domestic 
goose  and  the  large  Muscovy  duck  will  not  propagate  their 
species.  Mules  cannot  perpetuate  their  kind.  The  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  the  liorse,  such  as  the  little  black  Shetland 
pony  and  the  tall  white  Arabian,  Avill  not  only  breed  together 
but  these  hybrids  will  continue  to  perpetuate  their  kind, 
thereby  proving  their  identity  of  species.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  cross  betv/een  the  most  perfect  and  the  lowest 
type  of  mankind.  If  some  of  these  mixtures  die  out  in  a  few 
generations,  it  is  not  owing  to  their  hybridity,  but  to  the  plain 
violation  of  natural  laws.  When  the  contracting  parties  to 
a  marriage  are  of  the  same  constitution,  there  will  be  no 


142  ANTIQUITY   OF   MAN. 

issue;  if  the  constitutions,  or  ratlicr,  tcmperoments,  are  m 
substance  too  nearly  tlie  same,  the  issue,  if  any,  will  be  either 
still-born,  or  die  vcrv  soon  after  birth  :  if  the  contractins: 
parties  sliall  liave  an  adjunctive  element,  the  issue  will  be 
short-lived,  although  they  nniy  arrive  at  the  years  of  ma- 
turity.* These  laws  apply  to  both  the  mixed  and  the  un- 
mixed ty})cs  of  mankind. 

The  close  allinity  of  all  the  races,  tlieir  subjection  to  the 
same  general  laws,  their  capacity  for  mental  and  moral 
improvement,  and  the  virtual  unity  of  their  languages  lead 
to  the  conclusion  that  one  birth-jilace  was  common  to 
all.  If  that  place  be  Central  Asia,  or  any  other  locality,  it 
must  have  been  long  before  traditional  times,  when  the  one 
tribe  was  broken  up  and  nations  formed. 

Races  change  so  slow  that  they  seem  to  be  stationary. 
On  the  ancient  Egyptian  monuments  are  representations  of 
the  ]S!"egro,  having  exactly  the  same  features  which  charac- 
terize that  race  at  the  present  time  ;  and  some  of  these  paint- 
ings date  as  far  back  as  2000  b,  c. 

Then  from  the  unity  of  the  race  and  the  persistency  in 
type,  an  almost  incredible  length  of  time  must  be  assigned  to 
permit  of  the  great  disparity  as  exhibited  by  the  different 
types  of  mankind. 

•  Powell's  "Human  Temperaments,"  p.  180. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 

THE   BIBLE   AXD    SCIENCE. 

Ko  Tt>ook  lias  caused  so  much  controversy  as  the  Bible. 
It  has  been  made  to  answer  for  the  folly  of  both  its  friends 
and  foes.  The  fierce  assaults  made  by  the  sceptic  have  been 
the  legitimate  result  of  the  preposterous  claims  made  by 
its  ignorant  but  too  zealous  friends.  The  Bible  makes  no 
such  claims  for  itself  as  have  often  been  made  for  it.  Its 
meaning  has  been  perverted,  sentences  distorted,  and  v,^ords 
changed  in  order  to  suit  the  caprice  of  its  advocates.  If  it 
were  a  living,  speaking  existence,  it  would  certainly  beg  to  be 
delivered  from  its  friends.  It  has  been  made  to  conflict  with 
the  investigations  of  science,  and  those  engaged  in  interpre- 
ting the  laws  of  nature  have  been  branded  as  infidels, 
although  they  may  have  devout  and  reverent  spirits.  The 
Bible  is  not  and  makes  no  pretensions  of  being  a  book  of 
science.  It  is  designed  to  be  a  book  of  religion,  and  a  history 
of  the  ancient  Jews,  and  its  references  to  scientific  questions 
arc  only  incidental.  If  the  references  to  science,  or  the 
account  of  Creation  be  radically  wrong,  its  teachings  on 
questions  of  morals  and  religion  would  not  be  thereby  invali- 
dated. Tlie  Christian,  or  the  Jew,  has  nothing  to  fear  from 
the  results  of  scientific  investigation.  But  there  is  a  duty 
devolving  on  him,  and  that  is  to  leave  his  fanciful  interpre- 
tations and  come  to  the  true  meaning  of  the  Scriptures,  and 
there  learn  how  the  words  were  understood  by  those  to  whom 
they  were  originally  addressed.  The  meaning  of  words,  as 
used  in  tlie  nineteenth  centur}',  is  not  to  be  connected  with 
their  signification   as  used   in  tlie   past. ,  Tliere  is  a  great 


144  ANTIQLITV    01'    MAX. 

distance  tliat  divides  llie  present  from  tlic  times  of  tho 
Hebrews,  and  their  lanijua^rc  and  tlioup^hts  from  the  Enjjlish 
language  and  modern  thought.  Tlie  ancient  Hebrews  were 
not  given  to  scientific  pursuits,  and  could  have  been  but 
comparative!}'  little  advanced  in  civilization. 

It  is  not  the  design  here  to  enter  upon  an  investigation  of 
the  points  raised  between  the  Scriptures  and  science,  but  to 
confine  the  inquiry  to  such  questions  as  the  previous  chapters 
have  demanded. 

Creation. — The  first  and  second  chapters  of  Genesis  not 
only  teach  that  God  is  the  Creator  of  heaven  and  earth,  but 
also  the  order  of  succession  is  given.  It  is  not  stated  that 
the  v.orld  was  created  out  of  nothing.  The  word  "bara," 
translated  "  created,"  has  a  A^ariety  of  meanings.  According 
to  Gesenius  it  means  to  cut,  to  cut  out,  to  carve,  to  form,  to 
create,  to  produce,  to  beget,  to  Iring  forth,  to  feed,  to  eat,  to 
grow  fat,  to  fasliion,  to  make.*  The  idea  presented  seems  to 
be  this  :  The  author  asserts  that  heaven  and  earth  owe  their 
origin  to  God.  Then  he  goes  back  and  explains  the  succes- 
sive stages  of  creation.  At  the  commencement  of  the  work 
the  earth  was  formless  and  void,  or  in  a  nebulous  condition, 
and  from  this  preexisting  mass  the  worlds  were  evolved. 
When  this  mass  was  created,  if  ever,  the  author  of  Genesis 
does  not  state. 

Six  periods,  or  "  days,"  are  given  for  the  formation  of  the 
earth.  The  use  of  the  words  "evening  and  morning"  natu- 
rally leads  to  the  conclusion  tliat  the  days  were  each  twenty- 
four  hours  in  length.  But  doubt  is  thrown  over  this 
conclusion  by  the  use  of  the  word  day  in  the  second  chapter 

*  The  idea  that  "  biira  "  meant  to  create  out  of  nothing  is  a  modem 
invention,  and  most  likely  called  forth  by  the  contact  between  Jewa 
and  Greeks  at  Alexandria.  The  Greeks  believed  that  matter  was 
co-eternal  with  the  Creator,  and  it  was  probably  in  contradistinction  to 
this  notion  that  the  Jews  first  asserted  that  God  made  all  things  out  of 
nothing.  The  word,  however,  only  calls  forth  the  simple  conception 
ol  fashioning  or  arranging. — Chips,  vol.  i.  p.  132. 


THE  BIBLE  AND  SCIENCE.  145 

and  fourth  verso,  where  the  whole  creative  week  is  called 
a  day.  The  word  translated  "  day  "  also  means  time,  but  it 
is  to  be  generally  taken  in  the  sense  of  the  civil  day — from 
sun  up  to  sun  down.  Hugh  Miller  held  to  the  opinion  that 
the  creation  was  represented  to  Moses  in  a  vision.  The 
periods  passed  before  his  mind  in  succession  and  had  the 
appearance  of  days.  The  evening  was  the  closing  of  one  and 
the  morning  was  the  beginning  of  another  period  of  time.* 
If  a  description  of  the  different  orders  of  life  had  been  given, 
it  would  have  been  beyond  the  comprehension  of  that  primi- 
tive people.  It  was  not  the  design  to  teach  geology.  The 
people  were  not  prepared  for  such  scientific  knowledge.  But 
the  simple  statement  that  God  is  the  author  of  all  things, 
could  be  and  was  understood  by  the  Israelites. 

On  the  sixth  day  man  appears  ;  but  there  are  two  records, 
and  in  them  he  is  presented  in  different  ways  and  for  differ- 
ent purposes.  In  the  first  account  man  is  made  in  the  image 
of  God,  and  to  him  is  given  dominion  over  the  living  things, 
and  he  is  commanded  to  subdue  the  earth.  The  second 
account  states  that  there  was  no  man  to  till  the  ground,  and 
the  Lord  formed  man  of  the  dust  of  the  gi-ound,  and 
breathed  into  his  nostrils  the  breath  of  life ;  and  man 
became  a  livino;  soul.  The  second  account  cannot  be,  as 
has  been  assumed,  a  repetition  of  the  first.  The  two 
accounts  are  radically  different.  One  account  makes  man  to 
have  dominion  over  the  beasts,  birds,  and  fishes  ;  the  other, 
to  till  or  cultivate  the  soil.  This  agrees  with  archseo-geology. 
Men  were  hunters  many  ages  before  they  were  agriculturists. 
The  one  account  has  man  made  in  the  image  of  God,  the 
other,  a  living  soul.  The  "  image  of  God  "  and  ''living  soul " 
may  be  the  same,  but  why  the  change  ?  There  may  be  a 
cause  for  it.  If  the  theory  of  the  vision  be  the  true  one, 
then  Moses  saw  man  in  two  capacities,  differing  one  from  the 
other.  Man  may  be  in  the  "  image  of  God,"  and  yet  in  a 
low,  savage  condition — subsisting  on  the   chase.     Man  may 

*  "  Testimony  of  the  Rocks,"  Fifth  Lecture. 

7 


14^  ANTIQUITY   OF    MAN. 

be  awakened  from  that  condition,  tlie  "image  of  God"  may 
assert  its  majesty,  and  make  man  a  religious,  worshipful 
being.*  That  there  were  two  classes  the  record  implies. 
Cain  goes  out  into  the  Land  of  Nod,  where  his  wife 
conceives,  and  he  builds  a  city.  Where  did  Cain  get  his 
wife,  and  why  did  he  build  a  city  ?  No  account  is  given  of 
the  birth  of  his  wife,  but  the  natural  inference  is  he  obtained 
her  in  the  Land  of  Xod.f  It  has  been  contended  that  Cain 
married  his  sister.  If  this  be  true  it  would  certainly  have 
been  mentioned.  It  is  too  important  a  matter  to  have 
escaped  notice.  If  he  married  his  sister  he  was  guilty  of  a 
heinous  crime.  If  it  was  right  then,  it  is  right  now.  The 
city  he  built  must  have  been  more  than  an  encampment,  or  a 
small  fortification.  (The  word  translated  "^'city"  bears  this 
meaning  also.)  It  would  have  been  of  no  moment.  It  must 
have  been  a  jolace  of  some  consequence,  and  designed  for 
more  i^crscus  than  Cain,  his  wife,  and  son.  Taking  all  the 
circumstances  together,  including  Cain's  dread  '^  of  every  one 
that  findcth  me  shall  slay  me,"  it  would  seem  that  the  object 
of  this  city  was  to  provide  for  individuals  of  the  pre-Adamic 
family  dwelling  on  the  cast  of  Eden,  and  possibly  to  ingrati- 
ate himself  into  their  favoi'. 

Then,  again,  in  the  sixth  chapter,  *'  The  sons  of  God  saw 
the  daughters  of  men  that  they  were  fair ;  and  they  took 
them  wives  of  all  which  they  chose."  This  was  followed  by 
great  wickedness,  in  consequence  of  which  the  world  was 
destroyed  by  a  flood.  Who  were  the  ''  sons  of  God,"  and 
who  the  ''daughters  of  men"?    AVliy  not  the  daughters  of 

*  Rev.  Dr.  J.  P.  Thompson  represents  Adam  as  a  typical  man  (Man 
in  Genesis  and  Geology,  p.  lOo  )  ;  Lnbbock  regards  him  as  a  typical 
savage  (Origin  Civilization,  p.  oOl).  Why  not  call  him  the  first  great 
prototype  of  the  human  race  ? 

f  The  word  I^ocl  means  to  icander,  to  he  driccn  about,  etc.  It 
ajipcars  to  have  been  a  familiar  name  at  the  time  of  the  fratricide.  It 
was  then  the  name  of  a  land  or  tract  of  country.  May  there  not  have 
been  roving  tribes  there,  and  from  them  the  place  was  designated 
"  Wandering  Land  "  t 


THE   BIBLE    AXD   SCIENCE.  14? 

God  ?  Tlic  "  sons  of  God  "  must  have  been  the  lineal  de- 
scendants of  Adam,  and  the  "daughters  of  men"  the  off- 
spring of  the  pre-Adamic  race.  The  mongrel  race  produced 
M'ere  monsters,*  and  their  minds  wei'c  bent  continually  on 
doing  evil.  Tliese  sons  of  Adam  must  liave  retrograded,  or 
else  tliey  would  not  have  sought  wives  from  among  a  lower 
peojile.  By  the  laws  of  nature  their  offspring  was  lower 
tlian  either  of  the  races,  from  the  fact  that  to  the  brutish 
natures  of  the  pre-Adamic  type  would  be  added  the  natural 
wisdom  of  the  Adamic,  thus  producing  cunning  and  craft  in 
their  wickedness,  f  If  stringent  moral  laws  had  been 
enforced  upon  them  the  result  would  have  been  reversed. 

*  Dr.  Livingstone,  after  speaking  of  a  half-caste  man  on  tlie  Zain 
besi,  described  by  the  Portuguese  as  a  rare  monster  of  humanity, 
"  remarks, '  It  is  unaccountable  why  half-castes,  such  as  he,  are  so 
much  more  cruel  than  the  Portuguese,  but  such  is  undoubtedly  the 
case.'  An  inhabitant  remarked  to  Livingstone, '  God  made  white  men, 
and  God  made  black  men,  but  the  devil  made  half-castes.'  When  two 
races,  both  low  in  the  scale,  are  crossed,  the  progeny  seem  to  be  emi- 
ne-ntly  bad.  Thus  the  noble-hearted  Humboldt  speaks  in  strong  terms 
of  the  bad  and  savage  disposition  of  Zambos,  or  half-castes  between 
Indians  and  Negroes ;  and  this  conclusion  has  been  arrived  at  bj' 
various  observers.  From  these  facts  we  may  pcihaps  infer  that  the 
degraded  state  of  so  many  half-castes  is  in  part  due  to  reversion  to  a 
primitive  and  savage  condition,  as  well  as  to  the  unfavorable  moral 
conditions  under  which  they  generally  e-s.ist."  —Animals  and  Plants 
under  Domestication,  vol.  ii.  p.  63. 

f  This  view  does  not  conflict  with  the  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  the 
race.  The  great  difficulty  in  interpreting  the  Scriptures  is  its  brief- 
ness. A  long  period  of  time  is  comprehended  in  a  very  few  words, 
and  much  is  left  to  inference.  The  tenor  of  the  Scriptures  favors  the 
idea  of  the  unity  of  the  race,  still  it  is  not  specifically  declared.  The 
strongest  passage  is  Acts  chapter  17  and  verse  26  :  "  Hath  made  of  one 
blood  all  nations  of  men  for  to  dwell  on  all  the  face  of  the  earth." 
This  does  not  conflict  with  the  idea  of  there  being  more  than  one  pair, 
but  their  blood  is  the  same.  It  is  not  declared  that  Adam  had  no  an- 
cestors. When  it  is  declared  that  Adam  was  the  son  of  God,  it  is  only 
to  trace  man's  origin  to  the  Supreme  Being.  If  Adam  had  ancestors, 
the  leaving  of  them  out  has  no  signification,  as  it  was  not  uncommon 


148  ANTIQUITY  OF  MAN. 

CJironology. — The  chronology  given  in  tlic  margins  of  the 
Bible  is  a  mere  invention,  and  has  worked  much  mischief. 
There  is  nothing  to  warrant  it,  and  no  excuse  can  be  made 
for  it.  The  Bible  gives  no  definite  chronology  for  those 
early  times.  That  no  dei^endence  can  be  placed  in  these 
chronologies  is  shown  from  tlie  discrepancies  between  tlic 
Septuagint  and  the  Hebrew  texts.*  The  Scptuagint  dates 
the  Flood  eisfht  hundred  years  farther  back  than  the  commoi! 
Bible.  "  A  margin  of  variation  amounting  to  eight  centu- 
ries between  two  versions  of  the  same  document,  is  a  varia- 
tion so  enormous  that  it  seems  to  cast  complete  doubt  on  the 
whole  system  of  interpretation  on  which  such  computations 
of  time  are  based. "'  f 

The  Deluge. — Allowing  the  date  of  the  Deluge  to  have 
been  3149  b.  c.  instead  of  2349  b.  c,  still  there  is  not  sufficient 
time  to  repopulate  the  earth,  and  form  those  mighty  empires 
recorded  in  ancient  history.  The  Duke  of  Argyle  has  very 
justly  remarked  that,  "  The  founding  of  a  monarchy  is  not 
the  beginning  of  a  race.  The  people  among  whom  such  mon,- 
archics  arose  must  have  grown  and  gathered  during  many 
generations."  The  peopling  of  Egypt  is  not  the  only  diffi- 
culty. "  Tlie  existence,  in  the  days  of  Abraham,  of  such  an  or- 
f^anizcd  government  as  that  of  Chedorlaomcr  shows  tliat  two 

to  drop  the  name  of  uuimportant  persons.  An  instance  of  this  kind  is 
!,M  vi;n  in  the  genealogy  of  David.  From  the  birth  of  Obed  to  the  birth  of 
his  grandson  David  (common  chronology)  is  a  period  of  two  hundred 
and  twenty-three  years.  Evidently  one  or  more  members  have  been 
dropped.  If  Adam  was  a  prototype 'it  was  not  necessary  to  trace  the 
line  any  farther  back.  The  forming  him  of  the  dust  of  the  ground 
would  give  his  relationship  to  the  rest  of  mankind.  He  was  chosen, 
endowed  for  the  purpose  of  elevating  the  race— of  becoming  the  head 
of  a  new  type  of  humanity.  • 

*  The  Septuagint  version  is  a  translation  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  into 
Greek,  made  about  three  hundred  years  B.  C.  The  oldest  existing  MS. 
of  the  Old  Testament  in  Hebrew  dates  back  no  farther  than  about  the 
tenth  century  after  the  Christian  era. — Chips,  vol.  i.  p.  11. 

f  "  Primeval  Man,"  p.  86. 


THE    UIBLE   AND    SCIENCE.  149 

thousand  years  b.  c.  tliere  flourished  in  Ehim,  beyond  Meso- 
potamia, a  nation  which  even  now  Avould  bo  ranked  among 
*  tlie  Great  Powers.' "  *  Then  the  characteristic  features  of 
tlie  Negro,  one  of  the  most  strongly  marked  among  the  varie- 
ties of  man,  were  as  greatly  marked  2000  b.  c.  as  at  present. 

These  statements  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Flood 
was  not  universal.  Most  nations  have  a  tradition  of  a  flood, 
but  ''the  monuments  of  the  two  most  ancient  civilizations  of 
which  we  have  any  knowledge — the  Egyptian  aud  Chinese — ■ 
contain  no  account  of,  or  allusion  to,  Noah's  Deluge."  f 
Many  of  these  traditions  doubtless  refer  to  some  local  flood. 
The  passages  of  Scripture  seem  to  teach  the  universality  of 
the  Deluge,  but  the  same  expressions  which  convey  the  idea 
of  universality,  are  sometimes  used  in  a  limited  sense,  and 
refer  onh'  to  the  Holy  Land,  and  to  bordering  regions.  The 
question  is  one  of  doubt  whether  or  not  the  sacred  historian 
means  the  Noachian  Deluge  to  have  been  universal,  or  only 
a  local  cataclysm. 

Monarchies. — The  Scriptures  do  not  state  that  Nimrod 
was  the  first  monarch,  but  "the  beginning  of  his  kingdom 
was  Babel,  and  Erech,  and  Accad,  and  Calneh.'*  Nor  is  the 
statement  made  that  he  founded  these  cities.  He  was  a 
mighty  hunter,  and  these  cities  were  the  heginning  of  Ids 
hingdom. 

The  Dispersion. — The  building  of  the  tower  of  Babel  is 
no  myth,  but  a  veritable  reality.  A  portion  of  the  mighty 
fabric  still  stands,  a  mountain  of  ruins,  attesting  to  the  vast 
amount  of  work  it  required  in  its  construction.  The  story  is 
told  in  few  words,  and  those  words  cover  centuries.  The 
people  engaged  in  its  construction  spoke  one  language,  but 
when  this  language  Avas  confounded  the  empire  was  rent 
asunder.  The  narrative  seems  to  teach  the  use  of  but  one 
language  on  the  whole  face  of  the  earth.  Dr.  F.  H.  Hedge, 
in  his  sermon  on  "the  Great  Dispersion,"  says,  "Moreover, 

*  "  Primeval  Man."  p.  87. 

*  "  Primeval  World  of  Hebrew  Tradition,"  p.  195. 


150  ANTKiUITY    Of    MAX. 

the  phrase  '  tliO  whole  earth,'  as  commonly  used  in  tlie  Bible, 
is  not  to  be  taken  in  an  absolute  or  scientific  sense.  It  is  not 
intended  to  include  the  entire  globe,  or  even  the  greater 
part  thereof,  but  is  looseh^  emplo\-ed  to  designate  the  whole 
of  that  particular  jiortion  which  the  wi-iter  or  speaker  has  in 
his  mind  at  the  time.  In  the  i)resent  caso  it  denotes  the 
country  bordering  on  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates."*  If 
the  views  of  this  eminent  theologian  be  correct,  then,  by  the 
same  principle  of  interpretation  the  unity  of  language 
spoken  of,  is  limited  to  the  counti-y  bordering  on  the 
Tigris  and  the  En])hrates. 

There  is  no  necessity  of  a  sapernatuval  aid  for  the  origina- 
tion of  language.  Under  the  view  already  advanced,  when 
the  animals  were  brought  to  Adam,  he  readily  gave  them 
names,  for  he  had  received  language  fi'om  his  predecessors, 
and  now,  being  an  especially  chosen  person,  his  endowments 
would  lead  him  to  a  more  vigorous  apidicatiou  of  its  use. 

It  is  not  incredible  that  God  could  have  fashioned  the 
world  and  peopled  it  with  myriads  of  beings  in  a  period  ot 
six  days  of  twent3'-four  hours  each.  It  is  not  incredible  that 
a  cataclysm  could  destroy  eveiy  living  creature,  save  an  ap- 
pointed few,  and  cover  tlie  remotest  boundaries  of  the  earth. 
It  is  possible  for  God  to  do  anything  save  that  which  is 
inconsistent  with  his  character.  What  is  possible  for  God  to 
do,  and  what  He  does,  are  two  vei-y  ditl'erent  things.  What 
He  has  done  can  only  be  told  from  the  evidences  which  He 
has  left.  What  He  might  have  done  is  only  speculation. 
Man  can  only  judge  from  the  facts  presented  to  him.  He 
observes  the  course  of  nature,  and  fiom  these  observations 
his  conclusions  are  draAvn. 

The  world  of  nature  and  the  spirit  of  revelation,  when 
properly  understood,  are  seen  to  be  in  harmony.  Man  is  not 
to  close  his  eyes  and  refuse  to  be  guided  by  science,  and 
with  blind  credulity  accept  the  tales  and  prejudices  of  hia 
grandfathers. 

•  "Primeval  World  of  Hebrew  Tradition,"  p.  222. 


THE  BIBLE   AisD  SCIENCE.  iol 


Note. — Dean  Stanley,  an  eminent  divine  of  the  Church  of  England, 
m  his  discourse  at  the  funeral  of  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  takes  unusual 
grounds  for  a  theologist.  lie  is  reported  as  saying  that  there  were  and 
are  two  modes  of  reconciling  the  letter  of  Scripture  with  geology,  but 
each  has  totally  and  deservedly  failed.  One  of  these  attempts  to  wrest 
the  words  of  the  Bible  from  ilieir  real  meaning,  and  force  them  to 
speak  the  language  of  science  ;  the  other  attempts  to  falsify  science  to 
meet  the  supposed  requirements  of  tlie  Bible.  But  there  is  another 
reconciliation  of  a  higlier  kind,  or  rather  an  acknowledgment  of  the 
affinity  and  identity  which  exist  between  the  spirit  of  science  and  the 
spirit  of  the  Bible.  First,  there  is  a  likeness  of  the  general  spirit  of 
the  Bible  truths  ;  and,  secondly,  there  is  a  likeness  in  the  methods. 
The  frame  of  this  earth  was  gradually  brought  into  its  present  condi 
tion  by  the  slow  and  silent  action  of  the  same  causes  which  we  see  now 
operating  through  a  long  succession  of  ages  beyond  the  memory  and 
imagination  of  man.  We  do  not  expect  this  doctrine  to  agree  with  the 
letter  of  the  Bible.  The  early  biblical  records  could  not  be  literal, 
prosaic,  matter-of-fact  descriptions  of  the  beginning  of  the  world.  It 
is  now  clear  that  the  first  and  second  chapters  of  Genesis  contain  two 
narratives  of  the  Creation  side  by  side,  differing  from  each  other  in 
almost  every  particular  of  time  and  place  and  order.  It  is  now  known 
that  the  vast  epochs  demanded  by  scientific  observation  are  incompati- 
ble both  with  the  sis  thousand  years  of  the  Mosaic  chronology  and  the 
six  days  of  the  Mosaic  Creation.  The  discoveries  of  geology  are  found 
to  fill  up  the  old  religious  truths  with  a  new  life,  and  to  derive  from 
them  in  turn  a  hallowing  glory. 


GLOSSAEY 

OF 

SCIENTIFIC  AND  DIFFICULT  TERMS  USED  INTHISVOLUMK 


Adjunctive,  having  the  quality  of  join- 
ing. 

Alluvial,  pertaining  to  the  deposits  of 
sand,  clay,  or  gravel,  made  by  river 
action. 

Amalgamate,  to  mix  or  blend  diflerent 
things  or  races. 

Antero-posterior,  in  a  direction  from 
behind  fonvard. 

Aphelion,  that  point  of  a  planet's  or 
comet's  orbit  which  is  most  distant 
from  the  sun. 

Archaeo-geologist,  one  versed  in  pre- 
historic remains,  or  familiar  with 
both  archaeology  and  geology. 

Archives,  public  records  and  papers 
preserved  as  evidence  of  fiict. 

Aryan,  a  term  applied  to  all  the  na- 
tions who  speak  languages  derived 
mainly  from  the  Sanskrit,  or  an- 
cient Hindoo. 

Atomic,  a  system  of  philosophy  which 
accounted  for  the  origin  and  forma- 
tion of  all  things  by  assuming  that 
atoms  are  endowed  with  gravity 
and  motion. 

Auditory,  having  the  power  of  hearing. 

Baton,  a  staff  used  as  an  emblem  of 
authority. 

Brachycephalic,  a  skull  whose  trans- 
verse diameter  exceeds  the  antero- 
posterior diameter. 

Breccia,  a  rock  made  up  of  angular 
fragments  cemented  together. 

Bronze,  an  alloy  of  copper,  with  from 
ten  to  thirty  per  cent,  of  tin,  to 
which  other  metals  are  sometimea 
added. 


Calcareous,  consisting  of,  or  containing, 
carbonate  of  lime. 

Calcined,  reduced  to  a  powder,  or  fria- 
ble state,  by  the  action  of  heat. 

Carbonate,  a  salt  formed  by  the  union 
of  carbonic  acid  with  a  base. 

Caruivora,  an  order  of  animals  which 
subsist  on  flesh. 

Carpal,  that  portion  of  the  skeleton 
pertaining  to  the  wrist. 

Cataclysm,  a  deluge. 

Celt,  one  of  an  ancient  race  of  people 
who  formerly  inhabited  a  great  part 
of  Central  and  Western  Europe ; 
an  implement  made  of  stone  or 
metal,  found  in  the  ancient  tumuli 
of  Europe. 

Cereal,  edible  grain. 

Champlain  Epoch,  a  name  derived  from 
the  beds  on  the  borders  of  Lake 
Champlain.  The  beds  are  subse- 
quent in  origin  to  the  glacial 
epoch. 

Chert,  an  impure  variety  of  fliut. 

Clavicle,  the  collar-bone. 

Conglomerate,  rock  made  of  pebbles 
cemented  together. 

Coronoid,  the  process  of  the  ulna  and 
lower  jaw. 

Cosmogony,  the  science  of  the  origin  of 

the  world  or  universe. 
Cranium,  the  skull. 

Crannoges,  small  islets  in  the  lakes  oi 
Ireland  and  Scotland,  used  by  the 
ancients  as  places  of  habitation. 
Crucible,  a  vessel  capable  of  enduring 
great  heat,  and  used  for  meltiDg 
ores,  metals^  etc. 
Cyclical,  pertainmg  to  a  periodical  8pao# 


154 


GLOSSARY. 


of  time  marked  by  the  recurrence 

of  Bomethiug  peculiar. 

Data  (pi,  of  datum),  aground  of  infer- 
ence or  deduction. 

Debris  (da-bree),  franjments  detached 
from  rocks,  and  piled  up  in  m;isscs. 

Demi-relief,  the  projection  of  one  half 
the  figure  beyond  the  plane  from 
wliieh  it  rises. 

Dendrites,  a  stone  on  which  are  tree-like 
markings. 

Devonian,  the  geolocfionl  age  between 
the  Silurian  and  Carljoniferon-;. 

Diluvium,  the  time  when  the  glacial 
beds  were  deposited. 

Dioritc,  a  tough  rock,  in  color  whitish, 
speckled  with  black,  or  areeiiioli 
black. 

Dolichocephalic,  a  skull  whose  diameter 
from  the  frontal  to  the  occipital 
bone  exceeds  the  transverse  dia- 
meter. 

Dorsal,  the  name  given  to  the  second 
division  of  the  vertebrae. 

Drift,  a  collection  of  loose  enrtli  and 
bowlders,  distributed  durin:r  the 
glacial  epoch  over  large  portions  of 
the  earth's  surface. 

Druidical,  pertaining  to  the  religious 
ceremonies  of  the  ancient  Celtic 
nations  in  France,  Britain,  and 
Germany. 

Dynasty,  a  succession  of  kings  of  the 
same  line  or  family. 

Eccentricity,  the  distance  of  the  centre 
of  the'  orbit  of  a  heavenly  body 
from  the  ceutre  of  the  body  round 
which  it  revolves. 

Edible,  eatable. 

Elliptical,  having  an  oval  or  obioiig 
figure. 

Eocene,  tlie  oldest  of  the  three  epochs 
of  the  tertiary. 

Epoch,  any  period  of  time  marked  by 
some  particular  cause  or  event. 

Esplanade,  a  clear  space,  or  grass  plat. 

Fauna,  the  animals  of  any  given  area 

or  epoch. 
Flora,  the  complete  system  of  vegetable 

species  native  in  a  given  locality, 

or  period. 
Fluor-spar,     a    mineral    of    beautiful 

colors,    composed    by  fluorine  and 

calcium. 
Fluvio-marine,  the  deposits  formed  by 

tho  joint  action  of  a  river  and  the 

•ea. 


Foramen,  a  little  opening. 

Fossa,  a  depression  in  a  bone. 

Fossil,  the  form  c.'^a  plant  or  animal  in 

the  strata  composing  the  surface  ot 

the  earth. 

Genus  (pi.  genera),  an  assemblage  of 
species  possessing  certain  charac- 
ters in  common,  by  which  they  are 
distinguished  from  all  others. 

Geode,  an  irregular  shaped  stone,  con- 
taining a  small  cavity. 

Geognostic,  pertaining  to  a  knowledge 
of  the  structure  of  the  earth. 

Glabclhi,  the  middle  or  frontal  protu- 
berance of  the  superciliary  arch. 

Glaciatiou,  the  process  of  becoming 
covered  with  glaciers. 

Glacier,  an  immense  mass  of  ice,  or 
snow  and  ice,  formed  in  the  region 
of  perpetual  snow,  and  monug 
slowly  down  mountain  slopes  or 
valleys. 

Gneiss,  a  crystalline  rock,  consisting  of 
quartz,  feldspar,  and  mica. 

Ilerbivora,  that  order  of  animals  which 

subsists  upon  herbs  or  vegetables. 
Homologous,  having  the  same  typical 

structure. 
Humerus,  the  bone  of  the  arm  nearest 

the  shoulder. 
Hybrid,  that  which   is  produced  from 

the  mi.\tnre  of  two  species. 

Ilium,  the  upper  part  of  the  hip  bone. 

Jade,  a  hard  and  compact  stone,  of  » 
dark  green  color,  and  cajwble  of  a 

fine  polish. 

Lanibdoidal,  the  suture  which  connects 
the  occipital  with  the  parietal  bones. 

Leptinite,  a  fine-grained  granitic  rock. 

Loam,  a  soil  composed  of  siliceous  sand, 
clay,  carbonate  of  lime,  oxide  of 
iron,  magnesia,  and  various  salts, 
and  also  decayed  vegetable  and 
animal  matter. 

Loess,  a  term  u*u;i!ly  applied  to  a  ter- 
tiary deposit  on  the  banks  of  tlie 
Riiine. 

Lumbar,  the  vertebrse  near  the  loins. 

Mammalia,  that  class  of  animals  char- 
acterized by  tho  female  suckling 
its  young. 

Marl,  a  mixed  earthy  substance,  con- 
sistinn^  of  carbonate  of  lime  ilay, 
and  .siliceous  sand. 


OLOSSAKi. 


155 


Mastoid,  a  process  situated  at  tlie  pos- 
terior part  of  the  temporal  bone. 

Matrix,  a  mould  ;  tlie  cavity  in  wbich  a 
tiling  is  held. 

Maxillary,  the  upper  jaw  bone. 

Metacarpal,  the  part  of  the  band  be- 
tween the  wrist  and  the  fingers. 

Metallurgy,  the  art  of  working  metals. 

Metatarsal,  the  middle  part  of  tlie 
foot. 

Miocene,  the  middle  or  second  epoch  of 
the  Tertiary. 

Molar,  a  grinding  tooth. 

Mold,  or  mould,  a  prepared  cavity  u>ed 
in  casting ;  to  form  or  shape  ;  Hue 
soft  earth. 

Mollusca,  an  order  of  invertebrate  ani- 
mals having  a  soft,  tioshy  body, 
which  is  inarticulate,  and  not  radi- 
ate internally. 

Moraine,  aline  oY  blocks  and  gravel  ex- 
tending along  the  sides  ot  sepa- 
rate glaciers,  and  along  the  middle 
part  of  glaciers  formed  by  the  union 
of  one  or  more  separate  ones. 

Nebulous,  having  a  faint,  misty  appear- 
ance; applied  to  uncondeused  gase- 
ous matter. 

Neolithic,  new  stone  age  ;  a  term  ap- 
plied to  the  more  modern  age  of 
stone. 

Nummulitie,  composed  of,  or  contain- 
ing a  fossil  of  a  flattened  form,  re- 
sembling a  small  coin,  and  common 
in  the  early  tertiary  period. 

Obeidian,  a  kind  of  ghiss  producc^l  by 
volcanoes. 

Occipital,  pertaining  to  the  back  part 
of  the  head. 

Ocbreous,  consisting  of  fine  clay,  con- 
taining iron. 

Olecranon,  the  large  jirocess  at  tlie  ex- 
tremity of  the  larger  bone  of  the 
fore-arm. 

Oausprobauiii.  the  burden  of  proof. 

Orbit,  tlie  cavity  in  which,  the  eye  is 
located  ;  the  path  described  by  a 
heavenly  body  in  its  periodical  re- 
volution. 

Osar,  a  low  ridtre  of  stone  or  gravel 
formed  V)y  glaciers. 

Oscillation,  the  act  of  moving  backward 
and  forward. 

Osseous,  composed  of  bone. 

Osteologist,  one  versed  in  the  nature, 
arrangement,  and  uses  of  the 
bones. 

Oxide,  a  compound  of  oxygen  and  a 


base  destitute  of  acid  and  saltish 
properties. 

Pachyderm,  a  non-ruminant  animal, 
characterized  by  the  thickness  of 
its  skin. 

PaliEolithic,  the  ancient  stone  age;  a 
term  applied  to  the  earliest  traces 
of  man  when  he  was  cotemporary 
with  many  extinct  mammalia. 

Palteontological,  belonging  to  the  sci- 
ence of  the  ancient  life  of  the  earth 

Parallelogram,  a  figure  having  four. 
sides,  the  opposite  sides  ol  whicli 
are  parallel,  and  consequently 
equal. 

Parietal,  pertaining  to  the  bones  which 
form  the  sides  and  upper  part  of 
the  skull. 

Pathological,  pertaining  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  disease. 

Pelvic,  pertaining  to  the  open,  bony 
structure  at  the  lower  extremity  of 
the  body. 

Perihelion,  that  point  in  the  orbit  of  a 
planet,  or  comet,  in  which  it  is 
nearest  to  the  sun. 

Perimeter,  the  outer  boundary  of  a 
body. 

Phalanges,  the  small  bonca  of  the  fin- 
gers and  toes. 

Philologist,  one  versed  in  the  laws  of 
human  speech. 

Pliocene,  a  term  applied  to  the  most 
recent  tertiary  deposits. 

Post-Tertiary,  the  second  period  of  the 
age  of  mammals. 

Prototype,  a  model  after  which  any- 
thing is  to  be  cojjied. 

Quadrangular,  having  four  antics,  and 

consequently  four  sides. 
Quadrumana,     an    order    of    animals 

whose  fore  feet  correspond  to  the 

handsof  man. 
Quartz,  a  stone  of  great  hardness,  with 

a   glassy   lustre,    and    varying    in 

color  from  white,    or  colorless,  to 

black. 
Quartzite,  granular  quartz. 
Quaternary,  same  as  Post-Tertiary. 

Radius,  the  smaller  and  exterior  boue 

of  the  fore-arm. 
Reliquite,  remains  of  the  dead, 
lihematic,  that   period  when  men  first 

began  to  coin  expressions  for  the 

most  necessary  ideas. 
Rodent,  an  animal  that  gnaws. 
Ruminant,   an   animal  that  chews  the 

cud. 


15C 


GLOSS  ART. 


Sagittalj  the  suture  which  conuects  the 
parietal  bones  ol'the  skull. 

Savaut  (sa-vOufi),  a  person  emiucut 
for  acquii'eineuts. 

Scapula,  the  ahoulder-blade. 

Schistj  a  rock  liavinfi  a  slaty  structure. 

Scientist,  a  person  noted  for  bia  pro- 
found knowledge. 

Sediment,  the  matter  which  subsides 
to  the  bottom. 

Semitic,  pertaining  to  one  of  the  fami- 
lies of  nations,  or  languages,  and 
80  named  from  its  members  being 
ranked  as  the  descendants  of  Shein. 

Serpentine,  a  soft,  massive  stone,  in 
color  dark  to  light  green. 

Siliceous,  containing  silica,  or  flinty 
matter. 

Simian,  a  name  given  to  the  various 
tribes  of  monkeys. 

Squamous,  the  anterior  and  upper  part 
of  the  temporal  bone,  scale-like  in 
form. 

Stalagmite,  a  deposit  of  earthy  matter, 
made  by  calcareous  water  drop- 
ping on  the  floors  of  caverns. 

Stratified,  formed  or  deposited  in  layers. 

Stratum  (pi.  strata),  a  bed  or  layer. 

Subsidence,  the  act  of  sinking  or  gradu- 
ally descending. 

Superciliary,  the  Bony  superior  arch 
above  tlie  eye-brow. 


Suture,  the  seam  which  nnitos  tho 
bones  of  the  skull. 

Syniphysifl,  a  connection  of  bones  with- 
out a  movable  joint. 

Talus,  a  sloping  heap  of  fragments  of 
rocks  lynig  at  the  foot  of  a  hill. 

Tarsal,  relating  to  tlie  ankic. 

Temporal,  pertaining  to  tiiat  portion  of 
the  head  located  to  the  front  and  a 
little  above  the  ear. 

Terra-cotta,  a  kind  of  pottery  made 
from  fine  clay,  hardened  by  beat. 

Tertiary,  the  first  period  of  the  age  of 
mammals. 

Thoracic,  pertaining  to  the  breast  or 
cliest. 

Troglodyte,  an  inhabitant  of  a  cave. 

Truncated,  cut  off. 

Tufaceous,  consibtiug  of,  or  resembliBg, 
tuff. 

Tuff,  a  sand  rock  formed  by  aggluti- 
nated volcanic  rock. 

Turanian,  that  order  of  languages 
known  as  monosyllabic. 

Ulna,  the  larger  of  the  two  bones  of  the 
fore-arm. 

Veda,  the  ancient  sacred  literature  of 

the  Hindoos. 
Vertebra,  a  joiut  of  the  back  booe. 


INDEX. 


Aijassiz,  136. 
Agriculture,  106,  110. 
Amalgamation,  140. 
Amiel,  Dr.,  20. 
Archiac,  Vic.  d',  13. 
Arts,  77,  91,  IW,  109. 
Aymard,  Dr.,  19. 


Baldwin,  A.W.,  115. 

Bara,  14-1. 

Belgian  Caverns,  44,  86. 

Berosus,  128. 

Blackmore,  Dr.,  2.3. 

Bligh,  Lieut.,  1.3';,  140. 

Bonuemaison,  30. 

Boucher  de  Perthes,  12,  18,  19,  3». 

Boue,  Aime,  11,  16,  41. 

Bourgeois,  Abbe,  23,  61,  62. 

Brown,  James,  23. 

Buchner,  Dr.,  50,  52, 55,  56,  60,  75, 121, 124. 

Buckland.  Dr.,  16. 

Burdett-Coutts,  Miss,  22. 

Burial,  91,  106.  110. 

Busk,  19,  50,  55. 

Cain,  Case  of,  146. 
Cannibalism,  90. 
Carpenter,  19. 
Cartailhac,  74. 
Casiano  de  Prado,  20,  38. 
Cave  of  Aurignac,  20,  73-74. 

"     "  Brixiiam,  39. 

"      "  Chokier,  17,  45. 

"     "  Feldhofner,  53. 

"      "  Furfooz,  88. 

"     "  Gourdan,  83. 

"     "  Kirkdale,  16. 

"     "  La  Madeleine,  80. 

"     "  La  Naulette,  43. 

"     "  Les  Byzies,  80. 

"     "  Massat,  22. 

"     "  Mentone,  23,  24. 

"     *'  Saint  Jean  d'Alcas,  94. 

♦•     "  Thayngen,  88. 

"     "  Trou  de  Chaleux,  86,  87. 

"     "  Trou  des  Nutons,  86. 

"      "  Trou  Rosette,  86. 

"      "  Trou  du  Frontal,  86, 
Cavern  of  Ariege,  33. 
"        "  Bize.  16. 
"        "  Cracow.  88. 


Cavern  of  Enghihoul,  16,  17. 
"  Engis,  16,  17. 
"  Gailenruth,  15  . 

"        "  Maccagnone,  71. 

"        "  Pondres,  16. 

"        "  Torquay,  23. 
Caverns  of  Brazil,  116. 

'•  Liege,  44. 
Cazalis  de  Fondace,  85. 
Chaldea,  128-130.         » 
China.  130. 

Christian,  Fletcher,  140. 
Christol.  16. 
Christy,  19,  80. 
Chronology,  101,  148. 

Usher's,  II. 
Clothing,  77,  90,  103,  109. 
Codrington,  Thos.,  23. 
Creation,  144. 
Croll,  31, 
Cromlech,  106. 
Cashing,  F.  U.  121. 

Dana.  J.  D..  2,S. 

Dani.sh  Shell-Mounds,  9S. 

"     Peat  Bogs,  96. 
Darwin,  Charles,  137. 
Dawkins,  08. 
Delaunay,  Abbe,  63. 
Delusre,  148. 
Denton,  W.,  61,  77. 
Desnoyers.  22,  00,  61. 
Desor,  38,  75. 
Dickeson,  Dr.  115. 
Dolmen,  106. 
Dowler.  Dr.  Bennet,  116. 
Dupont,  Edward,  23.  86,  87,98. 
Dwellings,  89,  103,  108. 

Edwards,  M.  A.  Milne,  23. 
Egypt,  134-136. 
Epoch,  Eocene,  62. 

"  •'        Fauna  of,  .58. 

"  "         Glaciers  in,  62. 

"       Miocene,  Fauna  of,  59. 
"  "        Flint  flake  from  Anril- 

lac,  63. 
Epoch,  Miocene,  Flints  from  Pontleroy, 

63. 
Epoch,  Miocene,  Glaciers  in,  63. 
Epoch,  Miocene,  Man  in,  63. 
"    Pliocene,  58. 


15S 


12fDEX. 


Kpoch,  Pliocene,  Man  Jii,  60,  61. 
Epochs,  not  gliarply  dcfinud,  IJ. 
KKchriclit,  I'lui.,  00. 
Espcr,  J.  1-'.  Jj. 

Falconer,  Dr.,  18,  19. 
Fauna  of  Kuimk-cr  KpocU,  79. 
Figuier,  13,  icy. 
Filiiol,  ;ix!,  !)4. 

Fishing  iind  Navigation,  110. 
Fontau,  M.  .\.,  •^■^. 
Food,  yo,  103,  1(18. 
Korchaunncr,  Uj. 
Ft,  Shclhy,  l;;21. 
Fot'sil  Man  of  Denise,  19,  74. 
"     of  JMuntone,  23, 8.5. 
"  Remains  from  Florida,  IIG 
Fraas,  Oscar,  7j. 
Frere,  John,  15. 
Fuhlrott,  Dr.,  22,  52. 

Garrigou,  Dr.,  22,  85,  94 
Geike,  2a. 
GUlieron,  103. 
Glacial  Fi)och,  .52. 

Date  of,  27. 
Duration  of,  28. 
"         "       Fauna  of,  2(J. 
"         "        Geological  Fcriod  of,  2?. 

GodwJn-Au.sten,  19,  39. 
Gosse,  38. 
Gunning,  W.  D.,  117. 

Half-castes,  147. 

Hall,  Dr.,  28. 

Hauzuur,  8S. 

Herodotus,  101,  124. 

History,  Outline  of,  14. 

Horner,  120. 

Human  bones  from  Colmnr,  23,  43 

TT  ",       ,,"  .  *■■"'"  ^avonia,  23,  00. 
Huxley,  Prof.,  40,  50,  52,  54-57. 
HybriUity,  law  of,  141. 

Implements,  101,  109. 

^"  from  Toronto,  115. 

,    ,.  "_  superstitious  regard  for,  15. 

India,  Fauna  of,  m  Miocene,  03. 
Issel,  M.  A.,  60,  90. 

Jaw  from  Maestricht,  16,  40. 

!!    ,\'      >l'>ulin-(iuignon,  19,  .38,  67. 
T  ,      ,o     LaNaulette,23,42,  07. 
Joly,  18, 

Keller,  Dr.,  21,  96,  100,  llij. 
Kemp,  1,5. 
Kent's  Hole,  19,  39. 
Kutorga,  Dr.,  50. 

Land  of  Nod,  146. 
Language,  78, 

'  Change  of,  lai. 

Divisions  of,  132. 
"  Number  of,  135. 

*'  Origin  of,  1.34. 

"  Written,  135. 

Lake-Dwellings  of  Switzerland,  21. 96-101 
Lartct,  Edward,  12,  21,  72,  73,  80. 


Las  0;ipa»,  131. 

Lastic,  M.  de,  81. 

Lee,  J.  K.  21. 

LeiiKius,  120. 

Liisc,  1;J0. 

Lubbock,  Sir  .John,  12,  14,  28,  30.  60,  69, 

Lund,  I) v.,  11,'). 

Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  11,  12,  17,  21,  27,  29,  50, 

MacEnery,  Hev.  ,T.,  19.  « 

Mahndcl  before  the  Academy  of  Paris.  15. 
.Man,  Contentions,  04. 

"     Description  of,  77,  92. 

"     Develojiinent  of,  63,  76,  89. 
Dispersion  of,  149. 

"     During  Glaciers,  65. 

'•     Inventive,  05,  7'6. 

"     Mode  of  living.  65,  66. 

"     Origin  of,  63,  145. 

"     Type,  04,  60,  89,  103, 108. 
Manetho.  124. 

Marks  on  fossil  bones,  18,  62. 
-Marie! te,  VSj. 
Matson,  .Tame?,  01. 
Max  Muller,  Prof.,  133,  133. 
J\lenhirs,  100. 
iM(^.\ico,  130. 
Miller,  Hugh, 145. 
Morlot,  101. 

Mound  Builders,  117-122. 
.Mounds,  Antiquity  of,  120, 
E.xtent  of,  117. 

"        Sacrificial.  118. 

"        Sepulchral,  119. 

"        Symbolical,  119. 

"        Temple,  119. 
Murchisoii,  Sir  Koderick  I.,  18,  136. 

Neolithic,  14. 

Osars,  hearth  and  wood  coal  beneath.  60 
Owen,  Prof.,  91. 

Pelvic  bone  from  Natchez,  115. 

Piers  Ploughman's  Creed,' 135. 

Piette,  82. 

Pliocene  beds  at  St.  Prest,  23,  60,  61. 

Pouchet,  Georues,  136. 

Pourtalis,  Count,  116. 

Pre-historic  Archaeology,  Divisions  ol,  U, 

Prichard,  Dr.,  140. 

Quatrefagcs,  61. 

Rames,  22. 

Kawlinson,  129. 

Reindeer  Station  on  the  SchuBSe,  23  75. 

Religious  Belief,  HI. 

Uenevier,    13. 

Rigollot,  Dr.,  35. 

Riviere,  23,  24. 

Robenhausen,  98,  99. 

Rock-Shelters  of  BruniqueL  81 

Rollin,  123.  i      .  "* 

Schaaffliausen,  Prof.,  55,  50. 
bclileicljer,  136. 


INDEX. 


159 


Schlieman,  Dr..  127. 

Schmerling,  Dr.,  11,  16,  17,  4MC,50. 

Scott,  P.  A.,  115. 

Septuagint,  148. 

Shell-Hoaps  of  America,  117. 

Skeleton  from  Lahr,  Iti,  41. 

"  "    New  Orleans,  116. 

"     Vlau,  56. 
Skull,  Er.cis,  45-51,  07. 

"      Neanderthal.  23.  51-56,  66. 
"  "  Race  Type,  56. 

'*      from  Altaville,  61. 
"         "     Cochrane's  Cave,  56. 
"         "     Comstock  Lodo,  115. 

"     Constatt,  15. 
"         "•     Osa?e  Mission,  114. 
"  "      Rhine,  56. 

"      of  Arno,  57. 
Skulls  from  Borreb}',  57.  • 
"      Minsk,  56. 
"      Moeu,  .56. 
Somme,  Valley  of.  18.  34. 

"  "         Implements  from,  35-37 

Sons  of  God,  146. 
Spring,  Dr.,  46. 

Stanley,  Dean,  on  thc^Mosaic  Record,  151 
Steenstrnp,  Prof.  95,  96. 
Stevens,  Alfred,  23, 

Stone  Implements  from  Bournemouth,  23. 
"  "  from     Colorado      and 

Wyoming.  62,  114. 
Stone  Impleme»tslrom  Foreland  Cliff,  23, 

33. 
Stone  Implements  from  Gosport,  23,  33. 

"     Grinell  Leads,  115. 
"  "  "     London,  15. 

•  ••  •'     Madrid.  20, 38. 

'  •  "    Seine,  38. 


Stone  Implements  near  Iloxne,  15. 
"  '*  nomber 

105. 

Tardy,  62. 

Taylor,  Bayard,  124. 

Tertiary  beds  at  St.  Prest,  22. 

"         Climate  of^  58. 

"        Fauna  of,  in  America,  69. 

"         Geography  of,  58. 
Tournal,  16. 
Tro3',  137,  128. 
Troy  on,  13,  100. 
Traflic,  01. 
Tylor,  12. 
Tyson,  Capt.,  139. 

Unity  of  Race,  136-142.  147. 

"     "      ObjectionB  to,  135. 

Vivian,  19. 

Vogt,  Carl,  50,  51,  57,  61. 

Wallace,  A.  R.,59, 13e. 
War,  105. 
Weirley,  Dr.,  114. 
Welcker,  137. 
Westropp,  13. 
Whitney.  Prof.,  61. 
Wilson,  Dr.  Daniel,  115. 
Wokcy  Hole,  68. 

Workshops  of  Laugerie-Basse,  80,  91. 
"  Laugerie-Haute,  80,  8L 
Worsaae,  95. 

Zawisza,  Count,  88. 
Ziunarraga,  BiBbop,  181. 


T     .- 


^  m^-jxij  valuable  :vobk. 


Cuns.    r::>"zr_7  _UL,irfT3.iiEaL    P&z:z. 


?«TT  SsoaniL. — Tiee:  "XMsmarEm- 

fc- — tisane.     DL — Z- ■  —  IT — ^gsiKjt.     T. — tTTrwnwg^     T^  — "      „      ■-^— 

Pi.-~  7:   -:  — 1£a3L 

tr- — 5»G".nuu:;I)nt.           -~                                  — "  -^"tr.     TT.. — TOb 

(Emnai.     Ti; — ^- _        _— ~niTr — ar-^twSMr. 


ginkuiuDi  hdsb  9£  mBsfisrs:  rnrni^'s^    Ic  is  r*«f  amlT  w^jirlf  ^cer  y^^pi^' 


aui-  fi«Es  aire-  tatij"  gf-iri*?;. 
Psrc  irSmr£  ^cws  -disiz  ILuii  vas  camaBB^OBsanr  '■[5:&  rfwygr  uiSmBh 

mag-  ^sgSTiS^Si  uSBtSS*- 

T&e  Ciiuf  5i  ~'ri.i.i.-,;..-..^.^  iisanaS.  ix  eJbc^  va;&  gsl<i  ^^~t— y  ^a  aii 


— , — ^—  _.  _  ^  -  ^ -  ,  — .       ^  _  -  -    , 


Mastodon,    Ma^ViMOth    and     Man. 
A  J^EW  J.YD  VALUABLE  WOEK, 

IJV 

J".  IP.  lyr^o  iijE^:]sr. 

Cloth.    Finely  Illustrated.    Price,  50  Cents. 


COnTENXS. 

Part  First. — The  Mastodon. 


I. — npneral  Dfscription.  II. — History.  III. — Name.  IV. — Range,  V. — Con'^itlon  of  the  Bone*. 
VI.— The  Teetli.  VII.— I''o.>.l.  VIII.— Hair.  IX.— Distinct  Species.  X.— Geology.  Xi.— 
First  Appearance.     XII.     Disappearance. 

Part  Second. — The  Mammoth. 

I.— Name.  II.— Description.  HI.— Range.  IV.— History.  V.— Climate.  VL— Food.  VIL— 
Destruction.     VHI. — Preservation.     IX. — Epoch. 

Part  Third. — Man. 

I.— Introduction.  II.— T!ie  Miocene.  III.— Tbe  Pliocene.  IV.— Tlie  Glacial.  V.— The  Inter- 
Glacial.     VI  — Ueindeer  Epocli.     VII. — liccent.     VllI. — Tradition. 

This  work  is  on  a  subject  wliicli  has  engaged  the  attention  of  the  most 
profouiul  men  of  modern  times.  It  is  the  only  work  ever  published  which 
places  all  the  facts  in  one  volume.  Thirt,^ -eight  species  of  the  Mastodon 
are  given,  with  their  scientific  names  fully  explained,  and  the  epochs  and 
localities  to  which  they  belonged.  There  are  three  full-page  illustrations 
of  these  colos.sal  animals,  one  engraving  giving  the  proportion  which  the 
one  bears  to  the  other.     Many  other  illustrations  embellish  the  work. 

It  contains  just  such  information  as  every  intelligent  man  desires  to 
know.  It  is  well  known  that  the  Mammoth  and  Mastodon  once  roamed 
through  the  primeval  forests  of  America  and  other  countries.  All  accessi- 
ble facts  are  full^'  given. 

Part  Third  shows  that  Man  was  contemporary  with  these  animals  froia 
the  earliest  times. 

The  Book  is  handsomely  bound  in  cloth,  with  gold  stamp  on  side  and 
back. 


X^TJBXjISIilEr)  BY 
CINCINNATI,   OHIO. 


JUL  25  re7«)AY  USE 

RETURN  TO 

ANTHROPOLOGY  LIBRARY 

This  publication  is  due  on  the  LAST  DA'l'li 
and  HOUR  stamped  below. 

RB17-407n-8,'72 
(Q4186S10)4188 — A-32 

General  Library 

University  of  Califoraia 

Berkeley 

YCiiiaea'i 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


